COMM511: Discussion 3

A

How to Improve Leaders' Communication Skills

Are poor communications skills holding you back? Experts share their advice.

By Dori Meinert February 26, 2019

s a leader, you might be an expert in your field. Maybe you have a degree or two. You might even have many innovative ideas that could help solidify your company’s future.

But if you can’t convey those ideas in a meaningful way to your employees and clients, your influence will be limited.

“The ability to communicate with clarity and purpose is the key to personal and professional success,” says G. Riley Mills, co-founder of Pinnacle Performance Co. in Chicago and author of The Bullseye Principle (https://amzn.to/2XipLP3) (Wiley, 2018).

Effective leaders must be able to inspire, motivate and persuade those around them to achieve organizational goals. However, leaders often fail to devote as much time to developing their communication skills as they do to honing other business skills, experts say.

Communication failures can be costly for organizations, causing wasted time and effort, low morale, reduced productivity, and a loss of trust and credibility, according to Dean Brenner, president of The Latimer Group in Wallingford, Conn., which provides executive coaching.

Here’s some advice from communication experts:

Know your audience. One of the most common communication mistakes that leaders make is failing to tailor their message to fit their specific audience, says Chris Westfall, a communication coach and author of Leadership Language (https://amzn.to/2EypsbD) (Wiley, 2018).

To be effective, leaders must make a connection with their audience, whether it’s employees or clients.

“The strongest message always starts with what your listener is thinking. You have to understand the challenges and concerns of your team,” Westfall says.

“You need to start by connecting to where your team is if you want to create real influence,” he says. “Browbeating doesn’t capture the hearts and minds of employees.”

Whether speaking to a group or an individual, leaders can help make a connection by using “you” rather than “I.” For example, say, “Have you ever noticed … ” instead of “This is the way I see it.”

Fe ed

ba ck

“Ultimately, the best leader serves the needs of the team, just as the team serves the leader,” he says.

Mills coaches leaders to ask team members and clients, “What do you need? How can I help?”

Create meaning. Twenty years ago, the smartest person in the room at work was the one who had gathered more and better information than anyone else.

“Today, the smartest person in the room … is the one who can simplify all the things that are going on and create a path through the complexity and toward a simpler solution,” Brenner says.

Many leaders spend a significant amount of time creating slides containing all kinds of data but don’t put those numbers in context. They need to explain what the numbers mean for each specific group that they address.

“The real mistake is to assume that everybody cares about the nitty-gritty of the data as much as you do,” Brenner says. “What you have to realize is everybody’s listening to what you’re saying and thinking in their heads about how they can apply it to what they’re doing.”

Effective leaders find a way to make their message relevant to what their employees are working on, he adds.

Become a better listener. A huge barrier to good communication is poor listening skills.

But learning to be a better listener can be challenging in a world filled with electronic distractions. And listening skills usually aren’t recognized or rewarded within organizations, Brenner says.

“We tend to promote people because they’re decisive and do things proactively,” he says.

When coaching executives to improve their listening skills, Brenner advises them to:

Respect the situation by choosing to ignore the distractions. Retain the information by engaging in a conversation or taking notes. Review what they’ve heard. If a colleague is in the meeting, compare what was heard. “We all listen through different filters,” he says.

Too often, people listen just enough to confirm what they already know or to defend their own position. Instead, they should be listening to discover what they haven’t heard before. Is there an opposing viewpoint that might be beneficial?

“Discovery is the listening that leads to innovation,” Westfall says. “Effective leaders know they have to gather information before they can make an informed decision.”

Prepare properly. When leaders at large companies are scheduled to give a presentation, their first step is often to search for an existing slide deck on the topic, Mills says.

“They think they’re saving time, but I would argue they’re adding time,” he says. “Think about what you want to say first. Who is your audience? What do they care about?”

Mills encourages leaders to focus on their objective as they craft their talk. Choose a strong, one- word verb to guide you. Do you want to excite audience members? Challenge them? Reassure them? “Most leaders go into it to inform, and there’s no emotional connection,” he says.

Practice makes perfect, but few executives perform trial runs, according to Darlene Price, an executive coach and author of Well Said! (https://amzn.to/2ThGhiZ)(Amacom, 2012). In fact, her surveys show that fewer than 5 percent of 5,000 business leaders who have attended her workshops said at the outset that they practice their presentations aloud or conduct a dress rehearsal.

“Most of the time, leaders deliver a rehearsal to their audience, and that’s just a huge mistake because they’re not putting their best foot forward,” says Price, noting that many mistakenly believe they’re already good at public speaking.

Mills, a former actor, says he hears many CEOs say, “I’ll just wing it. I don’t like to be tied down.” But their message can get lost if they ramble or misspeak.

He coaches executives to prepare by using the three phases that actors use:

The read-through, which is often stilted and awkward because they’re not yet familiar with the content. The stumble-through, when they add physical movement as they learn their lines. The dress rehearsal, when they wear the clothes that they’ll present in; use the slides, projector and microphones; and get comfortable in the setting.

Price reminds business leaders that 93 percent of communication’s impact comes from nonverbal cues, including body language and tone of voice. Without a rehearsal, leaders may unintentionally send mixed messages. They may be concentrating to remember their talking points, but their audience might see their furrowed brow or clenched hands and worry that the company’s situation is far worse than it is, she says.

When leaders strengthen their communication skills, they boost their “executive presence,” Price adds.

“A leader’s No. 1 job is to inspire,” she says. “That’s really why leaders need to work on communication skills—so they can inspire and motivate, and ultimately lead people in the desired direction.”

Dori Meinert is senior writer/editor for HR Magazine.

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The Leadership Quarterly 20 (2009) 814–827

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

The Leadership Quarterly

j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r.com/ locate / l eaqua

Do you feel what I feel? Mood contagion and leadership outcomes

Stefanie K. Johnson⁎ University of Colorado Denver, School of Business, PO Box 173364, Campus Box 165, Denver, CO 80217-3364, 303-556-5894, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o

⁎ Tel.: +1 970 491 2793. E-mail address: [email protected].

1048-9843/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Inc. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.06.012

a b s t r a c t

Keywords:

This research examines the role ofmood andmood contagion in a leadership situation. In phase 1 of the study participants received a positive or negative mood induction and completed a leadership speech describing how to complete a hiring task. In phase 2, participants watched one of the speeches from phase 1, completed ratings, and performed the hiring task. Followers in the positive mood condition had higher levels of positive mood and lower levels of negative mood, rated their leaders asmore charismatic, and performed better than followers in the negativemood condition. Followers' mood mediated the relationship between leader mood and follower outcomes. In the third phase of the study, participants read transcripts of the speeches fromphase 2 but experienced no change in mood or performance, suggesting the previous effects found in phase 2 were due to mood contagion rather than the content of the speeches.

© 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Mood contagion Charismatic leadership Positive and negative mood

Affect has been theoretically linked to charismatic leadership since Weber (1920) referred to the emotion, passion, and devotion that ensue from charismatic authority. Furthermore, affect remains central to modern theories of charismatic and transformational leadership (e.g., Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1995; Conger & Kanungo, 1994; Gardner & Avolio, 1998; House, 1977; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993). Leaders' affect not only influences leadership perceptions (Gaddis, Connelly, & Mumford, 2004; Lewis, 2000; Newcombe & Ashkanasy, 2002) and follower performance (George, 1995; George & Bettenhausen, 1990), but can also influence followers' affect through emotional/mood contagion (Bono & Ilies, 2006; Cherulnik, Donley, Wiewel, & Miller, 2001; Johnson, 2008; Lewis, 2000; Sy, Côté, & Saavedra, 2005). This study builds closely from past research on leadership, mood, and mood contagion (Bono & Ilies, 2006; Sy et al., 2005; Towler, 2003) by examining the effects of both leader positive and negative mood on followers' mood, perceptions of charismatic leadership, and performance in a controlled laboratory experiment (Fig. 1).

1. Charismatic leadership

Charismatic leadership theory, based on the conceptions of Weber (1920), House (1977), Burns (1978), and Bass (1985), explains the unique connection between leaders and followers that results in outstanding follower performance. Bass and Avolio (1994) distinguished among three facets of charismatic leadership. Attributed charisma reflects the personal power and confidence associated with charismatic leadership. Idealized influence involves leader behaviors related to serving as a role model for followers by stressing values and beliefs, moral behavior, and a strong sense of the collective mission. Inspiration motivation refers to leader behaviors aimed at adding meaning to followers' work, typically resulting in an increase in follower enthusiasm. Through these attributes and behaviors, charismatic leaders make each follower feel special, give each follower needed support, and engage each follower in a personal relationship (Fuller, Patterson, Hester, & Stringer, 1996; Kets de Vries, 1988) encouraging followers to exhibit greater effort, satisfaction, and commitment (DeGroot & Kiker, 2000), and take on greater responsibility (Bass

All rights reserved.

Fig. 1. Proposed model of the relationships between leader mood, follower mood, follower ratings of charismatic leadership, and follower performance.

815S.K. Johnson / The Leadership Quarterly 20 (2009) 814–827

& Avolio, 1994). Changes in followers' attitudes and behavior result in improved performance (DeGroot & Kiker, 2000; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996).

2. Affect and leadership

The current research examines the relationship between leader mood, follower mood, and charismatic leadership. Mood is a subjective feeling that is relatively low in intensity, diffuse, and not directed toward a specific object (Lazarus, 1991). Based on the Circumplex Model of affect (Larsen & Diener, 1992), mood differs on two affective dimensions: valence and arousal (Russell, 1980). The first dimension, valence, ranges from negative to positive and the second dimension, arousal, ranges from deactivated to activated, resulting in four quadrants of moods or emotions: negative deactivated (e.g., bored), positive deactivated (e.g., calm), negative activated (e.g., distressed), and positive activated (e.g., elated). The distinction between high and low arousal of positive and negative mood is particularly relevant to mood contagion because contagion is more likely to occur with high arousal moods thanwith low arousal moods (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson,1994). This study focused on two quadrants of the circumplex: positive activated and negative activated.

Moreover, both experienced and expressed mood are examined in the current study. Specifically, leader mood will be induced and it is expected that the expression of that mood will influence follower experienced mood. Drawing from Gross, John, and Richards' (2000) process model of emotion experience and expression, it is expected that individuals' moods are affected by environmental situations which give rise to expressed mood. Therefore, the induction of leader positive and negative moods should give rise to the expression of those moods.

2.1. Affective Events Theory

The theory that has most strongly focused on the role of affect at work is Affective Events Theory (AET, Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). AET suggests that positive and negative workplace situations serve as affective events, giving rise to changes in employees' affect, attitudes, and behaviors. AET is implicated in leadership research in at least two important respects. First, leaders have the ability to reduce the impact of negative affective events on follower reactions (Pescosolido, 2002) and performance (Pirola-Merlo, Hartel, Mann, & Hirst, 2002). Second, leaders' behavior, including their expressed moods, can serve as affect events for their followers (Dasborough, 2006; Johnson, 2008). Moreover, leaders may intentionally manipulate their expressed moods and emotions in order to elicit desired responses in their followers (Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000; Mio, Riggio, Levin, & Reese, 2005). In the subsequent section, I will provide greater detail as to how and why leaders' expressed mood is expected to impact followers' attitudes, performance, and mood.

3. Hypothesis development

3.1. Follower ratings of charismatic leadership

It is expected that leaders who express more positive mood will be perceived by their followers as more charismatic than leaders who express more negative mood. Generally, people who express positive moods are more likeable and perceived more positively than persons in less positive or more negative moods (Cialdini, 1984). While this is true for all individuals, leaders' moods are likely to have a disproportionate impact on others' perceptions because of leaders' salience as organizational members (Connelly, Gaddis & Helton-Fauth, 2002). Indeed, leaders expressing a positive mood are perceived positively (Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000; Dasborough & Ashkanasy, 2002) whereas leaders expressing a negative mood are perceived negatively (Gaddis et al., 2004; Lewis, 2000; Newcombe & Ashkanasy, 2002).

Further, Bono and Ilies (2006) note that the outcomes associatedwith facilitating positivemood in followers are quite similar to the outcomes associated with charismatic leadership. They suggest that the contagion of positive affect may be one of the

816 S.K. Johnson / The Leadership Quarterly 20 (2009) 814–827

psychological processes linking charismatic leadership to follower outcomes. Further, they note that research on personality points to the fact that the charismatic personality (e.g., extraverted, expressive, high in positive affectivity) is also likely to facilitate positive affect in followers (Bono & Ilies, 2006). Finally, in terms of charismatic leadership, the expression of positive mood is a behavioral indicator for charismatic leadership (Bass, 1985). As such, it is expected that leaders who express more positive mood and less negative mood will be perceived as more charismatic.

Hypothesis 1. Leaders expressing a positive mood will be attributed greater levels of charismatic leadership from followers than leaders expressing a negative mood.

3.2. Follower performance

Leader mood has also been shown to impact follower performance (Gaddis et al., 2004; George, 1995; George & Bettenhausen, 1990), although the mechanisms behind this relationship are largely unexplored. One possibility is that leaders who express positive moods are more well-liked (Cialdini, 1984), and their followers are willing to exert extra effort for them. Followers who dislike their leaders can derail them by refusing to comply with their wishes (Ashford, 1989) and performing poorly (Bass, 1990). Another possible explanation is that followers interpret leader positive mood as optimism about their performance, increasing followers' self-efficacy (Shea & Howell, 1999; Towler & Dipboye, 2001) and performance (Eden, 2003). Conversely, leader negative mood may lead followers to believe that the leader is pessimistic about their future performance, leading to a decrease in self- efficacy and performance. Therefore, the leader positive and negativemoods are expected to impact follower performance (Gaddis et al., 2004).

Hypothesis 2. Leaders expressing a positivemoodwill elicit better performance from followers than leaders expressing a negative mood.

3.3. Follower mood

Finally, leaders' moods can impact followers' moods through mood contagion. Mood contagion is the automatic and unconscious transfer of mood between individuals (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1992) which is thought to occur as a result of individuals' tendency to mimic others' nonverbal behavior, cueing the target to experience the mood that he or she is mimicking (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999). Just exhibiting a particular facial expression can elicit the corresponding mood or emotion in the individual (Adelmann & Zajonc, 1989). There are reasons to believe that mood contagion is particularly relevant in leadership contexts. In general, high status individuals are more likely to successfully influence others' moods than are low status individuals (Anderson, Keltner, & John, 2003). Moreover, leaders are highly salient groupmembers (Connelly et al., 2002) and should therefore have a greater impact on followers' moods than non-leaders (Fredrickson, 2003). Indeed, recent work has demonstrated mood contagion in leadership contexts (Bono & Ilies, 2006; Cherulnik et al., 2001; Johnson, 2008; Lewis, 2000; Sy et al., 2005).

Hypothesis 3a. Leaders expressing a positive mood will elicit more positive mood from followers than leaders expressing a negative mood.

Hypothesis 3b. Leaders expressing a negative mood will elicit more negative mood from followers than leaders expressing a positive mood.

3.4. Follower ratings of charismatic leadership

The role of mood contagion in a leadership situation is particularly important given the potential effects of followers' moods on their attitudes and performance. The theory of mood congruent learning suggests that people are likely to learn information that is of the same affective tone as their current affective state (Bower, Gilligan, & Montiero, 1981) and the theory of state dependent learning suggests that people exhibit better recall of information that is learned and retrieved in the same affective state (Bower, Montiero, & Gilligan, 1978). If followers are in a positive mood, then they should learn and remember more positive information about their leader than if they are in a negative mood. In addition, the affect-as-information principle suggests that individuals use their mood at the time they make a judgment as an indicator of their feelings toward a given stimulus (Schwarz, 1990). Moreover, as followers' moods are affected by their leaders, followers should attribute their moods to their leaders, causing them to believe that leaders who induce a positive mood are more charismatic than leaders who induce negative moods (Johnson, 2008).

Hypothesis 4a. Followers' positive mood will be positively associated with ratings of charismatic leadership.

Hypothesis 4b. Followers' negative mood will be negatively associated with ratings of charismatic leadership.

3.5. Follower performance

Recent research also has demonstrated the potential for mood to impact performance in leaderless (Jordan, Lawrence, & Troth, 2006) and lead (Sy et al., 2005) groups, as a result of the impact of mood on group process and coordination. The findings from

817S.K. Johnson / The Leadership Quarterly 20 (2009) 814–827

group research can be extended to individual-level performance, as well, through the impact of mood on individuals' cognition, motivation, and behavior. The cognitive explanation for the mood–performance relationship suggests that positive moods lead to better decision-making (Isen, Means, Patrick, & Nowicki, 1982) because positive moods cause individuals to rely on useful heuristics (Sinclair & Mark, 1992) and promote simplification of complex tasks (Isen et al., 1982).

The motivational explanation for the mood–performance relationship suggests that mood impacts individuals' arousal, increasing the initial effort that they put into a task and their persistence on that task (George & Brief, 1996). That is, the energy associated with positive mood can lead individuals to exert greater effort. Positive mood also results in an increase in individuals' expectancy motivation (Erez & Isen, 2002) and self-set goals (Ilies & Judge, 2005), possibly because people in a positive mood experience increases in: perceived control over future outcomes (Alloy & Abramson, 1979), self-serving bias (Fiske & Taylor, 1991), and probability estimates of positive future events (Bower & Cohen,1982). For these reasons, mood has also been shown to impact self-efficacy (Baron, 1990) which positively impacts performance (Eden, 2003).

The behavioral explanation for the mood–performance relationship is based on the idea that positive moods cause individuals to be more cooperative (Gouaux, 1971; Griffitt, 1970) and helpful (Isen & Levin, 1972), making themmore willing to work hard for their leader. The mood maintenance hypothesis suggests that persons in a good mood are likely to help others in order to prolong their good mood (Isen, Shalker, Clark, & Karp, 1978). Conversely, individuals in a negative mood may help others to alleviate their negative mood. Positive moods lead to increases in organizational citizenship behavior (OCB, George, 1991; Lee & Allen, 2002) and negative mood leads to decreases in OCB (Johnson, 2008). In the current study, the participants' performance task consists of ranking resumes based on a set of criteria and writing a letter to recruit the top candidate. This task is expected to tap all three processes by which affect impacts performance. The behavioral and motivation processes may encourage participants to spend more effort completing the tasks. Increased cognitive processing should help participants rank order the resumes according to the criteria. Therefore, the following hypotheses were formed.

Hypothesis 5a. Follower positive mood will be positively associated with performance.

Hypothesis 5b. Follower negative mood will be negatively associated with performance.

The main contribution of the current study is the integration of previous research and theory to examine how the relationship between leader mood, follower mood, follower ratings of charismatic leadership, and follower performance function together. It is suggested that the relationship between leader mood and follower ratings of charismatic leadership is partially mediated by follower positive and negative moods, as suggested by charismatic leadership theory. Only a partial mediation is expected because other factors are also likely to mediate the relationship between leader mood and follower ratings of charismatic leadership. For example, followers' implicit theories of charismatic leadership should also explainwhy leaders' mood impacts followers' ratings of charismatic leadership.

It shouldbenoted thatother researchhas demonstrated that leader charisma influences follower affect (Dasborough, 2006;McColl- Kennedy&Anderson, 2002), just as follower affect impacts followers' perceptions of charismatic leadership. Bothprocesses are likely to be true. More charismatic leaders (who likely exhibit high levels of positive affect) will likely have followers who experience greater levels of positive affect and followerswhoperceive themtobemore charismatic (Fig.1). It is expected,however, that followers' affective reactions to their leaders' charismatic/positively emotive behavior precedes the cognitive reaction of followers' perceptions of charismatic leadership. Indeed, there is evidence that affect precedes cognition in the evaluation of stimuli (Zajonc, 1980).

Hypothesis 6a. Follower positive mood will partially mediate the relationship between leader mood and follower ratings of charismatic leadership.

Hypothesis 6b. Follower negative mood will partially mediate the relationship between leader mood and follower ratings of charismatic leadership.

Similarly, in line with previous research (McColl-Kennedy & Anderson, 2002) followers' moods are expected to partially mediate the relationship between leader mood and follower performance. There are competing theories as to why leader mood should impact follower performance, including increases in followers' affection for the leader or increases in follower self-efficacy. Therefore, only a partial mediation is expected of follower positive and negative moods on the relationship between leader mood and follower performance.

Hypothesis 7a. Follower positive mood will mediate the relationship between leader mood and follower performance.

Hypothesis 7b. Follower negative mood will mediate the relationship between leader mood and follower performance.

4. The current research

The current study examined the impact of mood and mood contagion in a leadership context. In the first phase of the study, participants' moods were manipulated and they completed a leadership speech. Although previous research has generally used actors to manipulate leader mood (e.g., Gaddis et al., 2004; Lewis, 2000; Newcombe & Ashkanasy, 2002), actors may portray unrealistically strong moods. In organizations, the display of negative moods are generally unacceptable (Ashforth & Humphrey,

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1995). That is not to say that individuals never express negative moods at work, but individuals are often successful at controlling the expression of negative mood at work (Pugh, 2001; Gross, 1998).

The current research strove to capture more natural affective displays by manipulating leader mood rather than instructing leaders to display positive or negative moods. The result is a more realistic portrayal of how leaders express mood that is more applicable to organizational situations. In phase 2, followers watched one of the leadership speeches from phase 1 and completed the selection task explained by the leader along with several self-report measures. Finally, in phase 3, participants read one of the transcripts from the leaders used in phase 2 and completed the same task and measures used in phase 2. This last step was designed to examine the extent to which the effects found in the second phase could be attributed to the content of the leaders' speeches, rather than their delivery.

5. Phase 1

Participants included Masters in Business Administration (MBA) students from a small private university who were recruited from a core business course with required enrollment for all first year students. Forty-two students volunteered to participate: 30 (71.4%) men and 12 (28.6%) women. Participants identified themselves as Caucasian (n=23, 54.8%), Asian (n=11, 26.2%), Hispanic (n=4, 9.5%), and African American (n=2, 4.8%). Two additional participants failed to indicate their race (n=2, 4.8%). Ages ranged from 22 to 32 (M=27.44, SD=2.40). All participants had previous work experience with an average of 4.85 years (SD=1.94, range 1–9 years). Themajority of participants also reported previous supervisory experience (73.8%). Participants came from a wide variety of industries including consulting, finance, marketing, and sales.

Participants underwent a mood induction procedure, consisting of winning or losing a small gift ($5 gift certificate to a local coffee shop). They were told that roughly half of the participants would receive a gift certificate, based on random chance. The experimenter presented the participants with two envelopes. One envelope contained the winning certificate (“Congratulations, youwon the gift certificate”) and the other contained the losing certificate (“Sorry, you did not win the gift certificate”). Although it could be argued that notwinning the certificate does not actually imply that the individual lost anything, I argue that the participant did lose, in the samewayone loses a coin toss by choosing thewrong side of the coin. They chose thewrong envelope, and therefore, lost the gift certificate. Moreover, they were fully aware of their loss. The experimenter was blind to which envelope contained the winning certificate. Participants chose one of the two envelopes, randomly assigning them to one of the two conditions.

Providing a small gift to induce positive mood has beenwidely used in previous research (e.g., Isen & Shalker, 1982). Receiving the gift certificate was expected to induce a positive mood because success is an effective mood elevator, whereas losing was expected to lead to a negative mood because failure is an effective mood depressor (Henkel & Hinsz, 2004). While there is some concern that the positivemoodmanipulationmay have also induced the norm of reciprocity (Cialdini, 1984), previous research has demonstrated that the manipulation of receiving a small gift produces similar results to other mood manipulations (Erez & Isen, 2002).

After the mood induction, participants were asked to self-report their positive and negative mood and were given a set of written instructions. The instructions told them to imagine that they were a recruitment manager and that they were to explain how to complete a selection task to recruiters in their company. They were given 60 min to read the stimulus packet containing information about a new recruiting procedure and prepare a speech explaining the process. Data were taken on how long the participants prepared for the speech. These speeches were then delivered to a video camera operated by a second experimenter who was blind to the participants' conditions. Participants were given no guidelines as to the length of the speech, and data were also collected on the length of the speeches. This task has been used in previous research and has demonstrated validity as a leadership task (Towler, 2003). These speeches were designed to be used during the second phase of the study so participants acting as followers could complete the selection task.

5.1. Job Affect Scale (JAS)

The JAS was used to determine if the mood manipulation impacted leaders' experienced mood states. The JAS (Brief, Burke, George, Robinson, & Webster, 1988) consists of 20 items describing positive and negative mood and is based on the framework provided byWatson and Tellegen (1985). Participants are asked to indicate how they feel “right now” as a measure of state mood. In addition to the distinction between positive and negative mood, the scale can be divided between high and low levels of arousal (ranging from deactivated to activated). In this study the positive activated mood (Cronbach's α=.88) and negative activated mood (Cronbach's α=.78) scales were used because they are more likely to lead to contagion. Sample items for the negative activated mood scale are: distressed, nervous, hostile. Sample items for the positive activated mood scale are: active, elated, enthusiastic. Answers are recorded on 5-point scale ranging from very slightly or not at all (1) to very much (5).

5.2. Ratings of expressed mood

As a manipulation check of leaders' expressed moods, four coders watched all 42 speeches, in random order, and rated each speaker on six items judging the extent to which he or she expressed positive and negative moods. Raters received a brief training sessions on how to identify positive and negative mood through various sources of information (tone of voice, facial expression, etc.). Rather than counting specific behaviors, followers were asked to make more global judgments about the leaders' mood to allow them to use all available information to make their judgments. Usingmultiple channels of mood information, including face, voice, and whole body expressions can enhance individuals' ability to decode mood (Van den Stock, Righart, & de Gelder, 2007).

819S.K. Johnson / The Leadership Quarterly 20 (2009) 814–827

A sample item for the positive mood questionnaire was, “The leader looks like s/he is in a good mood.” A sample item for the negative mood questionnaire was, “The leader looks like s/he is in a bad mood.” To measure agreement between raters, intraclass correlations were run. ICC is conceptualized as the ratio of between-groups variance to total variance (Shrout & Fleiss, 1979) and was calculated using SPSS's one-way random effects model testing for consistency, rather than absolute agreement in the computation. Therewas an adequate level of agreement between raters for both the positive (ICC=.76) and negative (ICC=.72)mood scales. Also, both the positive (Cronbach's α=.96) and negative (Cronbach's α = .96) scales had a high level of internal consistency.

5.3. Manipulation checks 1 and 2

Because the goal of phase 1 was to create stimuli for the second phase that differed on expressed mood, several sources of informationwere gathered to ensure that themanipulation of leadermoodwas successful. First, the leaders self-reported theirmood. Second, raters coded all of the leaders' moods. In addition, after stimuli were selected for use in phase 2 of the study, two additional measures of leader expressed mood were taken for the chosen leaders. Table 1 contains the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelationsof all of the variables examined inphase 1. The effects of themoodmanipulation on leader expressed and experienced moodwere examinedwith correlations. First, examining the self-report data, leaders in the positivemood condition experienced less negative mood than leaders in the negative mood condition (r(41)=.39, pb .05). The mood manipulation did not, however, affect leaders' experienced positive mood (r(41)=.13, pN .05).

Examining the rater data, leaders in the positive mood condition expressed more positive mood (r(41)=.31, pb .05) and less negative mood (r(41)=− .33, pb .05) than leaders in the negative mood condition. These data are based on all 42 of the leaders. Additional measures were taken after the focal stimuli were selected.

5.4. Stimulus choice

From the 42 leader speeches collected in phase 1, four speecheswere chosen for use in phase 2. A coding process was conducted to choose leaders who were similar to each other in appearance, only the 20 white menwere considered for use to avoid potential effects of leader race and gender. Of the 20 white men, five were eliminated based on dress, four on age, two for facial hair, one for accent, and one whose speech was very long. After these eliminations, there were two leaders remaining in the negative mood condition and five leaders remaining in the positive mood condition. From the five leaders in the positive mood condition, the two with the highest self-reported positive moodwere chosen for use in the study. These steps were taken to avoid threats to construct validity that can occur as a result of bias in stimulus sampling (Wells & Windschitl, 1999). Specifically, the goal was to choose individuals from each condition that were representative of the condition so that the effects can be generalized to represent positive and negative mood in general, rather than being limited to the chosen stimuli from a condition.

To testwhether the chosen leaders differed from their respective conditions severalmeasureswere taken. The datawere dividedby condition and the two chosen stimuli were compared to their conditions using independent samples t-tests. The chosen leaders did not differ from their respective conditions on expressed or self-reported positive or negativemood, time spent preparing or delivering their speeches (psN .05). In addition, the speecheswere scored for the extent towhich they covered themajor details of the task (using transcriptions) and for nonverbal behavior. There were no differences between the chosen stimuli and their conditions on either of these dimensions (psN .05). Therefore, it appears that the chosen leaders were representative of their conditions.

5.5. Manipulation checks 3 and 4

After the four focal leaders were selected, two additional manipulation checks were conducted to ensure that the chosen leaders differed on expressed mood. First, twelve coders watched all four leaders' speeches and rated them on their expressed positive and negative mood. The items for both the positive (Cronbach's α=.89) and the negative (Cronbach's α=.94) expressed

Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations between variables in phase 1 (leaders' mood induction).

M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Mood condition a 0.50 0.51 1 2. Expressed positive mood 3.23 0.92 .31 ⁎ 1 3. Expressed negative mood 2.36 0.94 − .33 ⁎ − .88 ⁎⁎⁎ 1 4. Self-reported positive mood 3.00 0.77 .13 .39 ⁎ − .40 ⁎⁎ 1 5. Self-reported negative mood 1.55 0.51 − .33 ⁎ − .07 .15 − .20 1 6. Speech preparation time 5.61 2.63 .31 ⁎ .05 − .01 .03 − .06 1 7. Speech length 24.45 14.62 .33 ⁎ .08 − .05 .32 ⁎ − .08 .06 1 8. Transcript rating 0.53 0.21 .22 − .22 .17 .08 − .20 .246 .32 ⁎ 1 9. Nonverbal behavior 3.95 0.82 .19 .20 − .18 .43 ⁎⁎ − .19 − .06 .24 .04 1

Note. n=42. a Mood condition was coded as 0=negative mood (n=21), 1=positive mood (n=21).

⁎ pb .05. ⁎⁎ pb .005. ⁎⁎⁎ pb .001.

820 S.K. Johnson / The Leadership Quarterly 20 (2009) 814–827

mood questionnaireswere the same as themanipulation check used in phase 1. Coders received similar training to thosewho rated all of the 42 leader speeches on expressed mood. The t-test for expressed positive mood revealed a significant difference between conditions t(46)=−2.53, pb .05. The two leaders in the positive mood condition were rated as expressing more positive mood (M=3.64, SD=.72) than the two leaders in the negative mood condition (M=3.14, SD=.64). The t-test for expressed negative mood also revealed a significant difference between conditions t(46)=3.77, pb .001. The two leaders in the positive mood condition were rated as expressing less negative mood (M=1.64, SD=.67) than the two leaders in the negative mood condition (M=2.39, SD=.71).

In addition, two t-testswere run to determinewhether therewere any differences between the two stimuli within each condition. As expected, therewasnodifferencebetween the two stimuli in the positivemoodonexpressedpositive t(22)=.37,pN .05 or negative t(22)=1.70, pN .05 mood. Similarly, there were no differences between the two stimuli in the negative mood condition on expressed positive t(22)=− .42, pN .05 or negative t(22)=− .19, pN .05 mood.

As a final manipulation check, the participants who acted as followers in phase 2 also rated their leader's positive mood. The followers rated the leaders on positive mood using the same three-item scale used prior (Cronbach's α=.93). The followers' manipulation check was tested using an independent samples t-test to compare the differences between conditions t(198)=5.56, pb .001. Followers in the positive mood condition reported that their leaders expressed more positive mood (M=3.44, SD=.98) than leaders in the negative mood condition (M=2.64, SD=1.04). Two additional tests were conducted to examine whether there were differences between the two stimuli within each condition on themanipulation check. Therewas nodifference between the two stimuli in the negative mood condition (t(90)=1.58, pN .05) or between the two stimuli in the positive mood condition (t(106)= − .42, pN .05).

In sum, all of the manipulation checks revealed significant differences between conditions on expressed positive and negative mood and experienced negative mood, but not experienced positive mood.

6. Phase 2

Phase 2 consisted of 200 participants from two universities in the southwest who participated in the study for course credit. The majority of the participants were women (n=120, 59.1%), and Caucasian (n=120, 59.1%). There were also 26 Asian (12.8%), 19 Black (9.4%), and 26 Hispanic (12.8%) participants. Twelve (5.9%) participants failed to indicate their race. The participants ranged in age from 17 to 51 years (M=23.84, SD=6.79). The majority of the participants were undergraduate students (n=147), but there were also 53 graduate students. Most of the participants had previous work experience (n=168, 96.1%) with the average being 5.63 years (SD=6.53). Eighty-five (41.9%) of the participants had previous supervisory experience.

6.1. Procedure

Participants viewed one of four leadership stimuli tapes from phase 1 and completed a series of measures, including self-reported mood (JAS), a rating of their leader's charismatic leadership (MLQ), and a performance task in that order. Followers also completed a manipulation check (described previously) in which they rated leader mood. The task was a selection exercise adapted from Towler (2003). Instructions on how to complete the task were conveyed to the followers by the taped leadership speeches. Although the individuals delivering the speeches had no relationship with the followers, they should be considered “leaders” because they had the sole responsibility of explaining the task to, and eliciting task performance from, the followers (Davis & Luthans, 1979). As Chemers (1997, p. 1) said, “Leadership is a process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task.”

Further, as suggested by leadership categorization theory, themere labeling of someone as a leader is enough to evoke followers' leadership prototypes and impact followers' attitudes toward the “leader” (Lord, Foti, &, De Vader 1984). The followers were given 45minutes to complete the selection task which involved scanning 12 resumes for a position in a management training program. The followers were asked to rank order each of the resumes and towrite a letter to the top candidate offering the individual the job, and trying to recruit him/her to accept the position at the company. As an overall measure of performance the z-scored average of the followers' performance on ranking the resumes and their score on the letter's quality was taken.

6.2. Instructions and task

As described previously, the leaders in phase 1 read a stimulus packet in which they were asked to assume the role of a recruitment manager, explaining how to conduct a selection process for a management training program. The participants in this phase of the studywere to complete the selection task based on 12 resumes, according to the leaders' instructions. Performancewas scored based on the accuracy of their candidate rankings and quality of their recruitment letter.

6.2.1. Performance accuracy In the original development of this task, experts rated each of the applicants for themanagement training program (Towler, 2003).

Thefirstmeasure of performancewas the agreement between the rankings produced by the participants and those determined by the coders. The agreement scorewas calculated by taking the absolute value of thedifference between the “correct” rankings and thegiven rankings. The sum of the values was taken and the total was multiplied by negative one so a higher score indicates a better score.

821S.K. Johnson / The Leadership Quarterly 20 (2009) 814–827

6.2.2. Letter The second measure of performance was the quality of the participants' recruitment letter. Participants wrote a letter to their

top candidate, persuading him or her to join their organization. Each letter was rated by three coders on quality. A sample item is “The letter was high quality.” There was an adequate level of agreement between raters (ICC=.76) and the scale had high internal consistency (Cronbach's α=.92).

6.3. Measures

6.3.1. Job Affect Scale (JAS) Same as phase 1. Again, the positive and negative activated scales were used. The positive mood scale had an adequate level of

internal consistency (Cronbach's α=.88). The internal consistency for negative mood was not adequate (Cronbach's α=.58), as it was lower than the accepted standard of .70 (Guion, 1998). To examine the reason behind the low level of internal consistency the items from the negative activated mood scale were subjected to an exploratory factor analysis, which yielded two factors. The first factor represented two items (hostile, scornful) which had an adequate level of reliability (Cronbach's α=.71). The remaining four items clustered together as a second factor, although they still had a low level of internal consistency (Cronbach's α=.57). Therefore, only the first factor was used to represent the negative mood scale.

6.3.2. Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X/short form) Three subscales from Bass and Avolio's (1995) leadership questionnaire were used to measure Charismatic Leadership:

Idealized Influence, Inspiration Motivation, and Attributed Charisma. The scale consists of 12 items and ratings are made on a 5- point Likert-type scale anchored with 0=not at all and 4=frequently, if not always. Because of the high level of internal consistency of the scale (Cronbach's α=.90) and the theoretical basis for the conceptual connections between the subscales (Bass, 1985), an overall measure of charismatic leadership was used. The use of an overall charisma measure is supported by current theory development of charismatic leadership (Bass & Riggio, 2006).

6.4. Results and discussion

6.4.1. Test of hypotheses Thefirst 5 hypotheseswere testedusing correlations (Table 2). Hypothesis 1was supported such that leaders expressing positive

mood were attributed greater levels of charismatic leadership (r(199)=.38, pb .001) than leaders expressing negative mood. As suggested byHypothesis 2, leaders expressing positivemood also elicited better performance from followers (r(199)=.25, pb .001) than leaders expressing negativemood. Finally, in accordancewith Hypothesis 3a and 3b leaders expressing positive mood elicited more positive mood (r(199)=.26, pb .001) and less negativemood (r(199)=− .21, pb .01) from followers than leaders expressing negative mood.

Examining the effects of follower mood on follower outcomes, Hypotheses 4a and 4b suggested that follower positive and negative mood would impact follower ratings of charismatic leadership. Both hypotheses were supported: follower positive mood was positively related to ratings of charismatic leadership (r(199)=.40, pb .001) and follower negative mood was negatively related to ratings of charismatic leadership (r(199)=− .19, pb .01). In support of Hypothesis 5b, follower negative mood was negatively related to follower performance (r(199)=− .23, pb .01). Hypothesis 5a was not supported as follower positive mood was not significantly related to follower performance (r(199)=− .01, pN .05).

6.4.2. Tests of mediation Several partial mediations were also hypothesized. To test for mediation, the steps outlined by Baron and Kenny (1986) were

followed. Hypotheses 6a and 6b suggested that follower positive and negative mood would partially mediate the relationship between leader mood and follower ratings of charismatic leadership. The initial criteria for mediation were satisfied with correlational data (Table 2). Leadermood (the IV) was significantly related to follower positive and negativemood (themediators) and follower ratings of charismatic leadership (the DV). In addition, follower positive and negative mood were related to follower

Table 2 Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations between variables in phase 2 (followers watching leaders' videos).

M SD 1 2 3 4 5

1. Mood condition a 0.54 0.50 1 2. Follower positive mood 2.27 0.85 .26 ⁎⁎⁎ 1 3. Follower negative mood 1.26 0.55 − .21 ⁎⁎ − .07 1 4. Charismatic leadership 2.03 0.84 .38 ⁎⁎⁎ .40 ⁎⁎⁎ − .19 ⁎⁎ 1 5. Follower performance 0.04 1.47 .25 ⁎⁎⁎ − .01 − .23 ⁎⁎ .08 1

Note. n=200. a Mood condition was coded as 0=negative mood (n=92), 1=positive mood (n=108).

⁎ pb .05. ⁎⁎ pb .005.

⁎⁎⁎ pb .001.

Table 3 Mediating effects of followers' mood on the relationship between leaders' mood and charismatic leadership in phase 2 (followers watching leaders' videos).

Β R2 ΔR2

DV=Charismatic leadership Step 1

Mood condition a .63 ⁎⁎⁎ .14 .14 ⁎⁎⁎

Step 2 Mood condition a .46 ⁎⁎⁎

Follower positive mood .32 ⁎⁎⁎

Follower negative mood b .17 .25 .07 ⁎⁎⁎

Note. n=200. a Mood condition was coded as 0=negative mood, 1=positive mood. b Followers' negative mood was reversed by multiplying the variable by a negative 1 so that all values would be positive.

⁎ pb .05. ⁎⁎ pb .005.

⁎⁎⁎ pb .001.

Table 4 Mediating effects of follower mood on the relationship between leaders' mood and followers' performance in phase 2 (followers watching leaders' videos).

Β R2 ΔR2

DV=Follower performance Step 1 Mood condition a .73 ⁎⁎⁎ .06 .06 ⁎⁎

Step 2 Mood condition a .61 ⁎⁎

Follower negative mood b .50 ⁎⁎ .09 .03 ⁎⁎

Note. n=200. a Mood condition was coded as 0=negative mood, 1=positive mood. b Followers' negative mood was reversed by multiplying the variable by a negative 1 so that all values would be positive.

⁎ pb .05. ⁎⁎ pb .005.

⁎⁎⁎ pb .001.

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ratings of charismatic leadership. To establish the next criteria for mediation, leader mood was entered as the first step in a regression equation and follower positive and negativemoodwere entered as the second step, with follower ratings of charismatic leadership entered as the dependant variable.

The effect of follower positive mood on ratings of charismatic leadership remained significant after accounting for leader mood (β=.32, t(196)=4.98, pb .001), although the effect of follower negative mood on ratings of charismatic leadership no longer reached conventional levels of significance when controlling for leader mood (β=− .17, t(196)=1.74, p=.08). To test whether the effect of leader mood on follower ratings of charismatic leadership was significantly reduced, a Sobel test (Sobel, 1982) was conducted. The test revealed a significant decrease in the relationship between leader positive mood and follower ratings of charismatic leadership when accounting for follower positive mood (z=3.02, pb .001). The relationship between leader positive mood and follower ratings of charismatic leadership remained statistically significant, however, providing evidence of partial mediation (Table 3).

To test Hypotheses 7a and 7b that follower positive and negative mood would partially mediate the relationship between leader mood and follower performance, an additional test of mediation was conducted. The criteria for mediation were established for follower negative mood. Leader mood (the IV) related to follower performance (the DV), leader mood related to follower negative mood (the mediator), and follower negative mood related to follower performance. The criteria were not established for follower positivemood, however, whichwas not significantly related to follower performance (Table 2). Therefore, themediation testwas only conducted for follower negative mood. The remaining criteria for partial mediation were tested by adding leader mood into a regression equation as the first step and follower negative mood into the regression equation as the second step, with follower performance as the dependent variable. The relationship between follower negativemood and follower performancewas statistically significant (β=.50, t(197)=2.65, pb .01), and the relationship between leader mood and follower performance was reduced, although it remained statistically significant. A Sobel test revealed that this reduction was statistically significant (z=1.98, pb .05) providing evidence for a partial mediation (Table 4).

In sum, leader mood influenced follower positive and negative mood, follower ratings of charismatic leadership, and follower performance. Follower positive mood partially mediated the relationship between leader mood and follower ratings of charismatic leadership while follower negative mood partially mediated the relationship between leader mood and follower performance.

7. Phase 3

The second phase of the study largely supported the hypothesized relationships, although there is some ambiguity as to why leader mood impacted follower outcomes. Because the leader stimuli were the result of mood inductions, rather than standardized

823S.K. Johnson / The Leadership Quarterly 20 (2009) 814–827

stimuli, they differed in both the content and the delivery of their leadership speeches. It was unclear if it was what the leaders said, or how they said it, that resulted in changes in follower mood, ratings of charismatic leadership, and performance. Previous research has demonstrated that both leaders' content and delivery can affect followers' ratings of charismatic leadership and performance (Awamleh & Gardner, 1999; Johnson & Dipboye, 2008; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996). To address this concern, a final phase of the study was conducted inwhich the leaders' speeches were transcribed and participants read the speeches (rather than watching a videotape) and completed the post measures and performance task.

7.1. Method

To determine the number of participants needed for the final phase of the study a power analysis was conducted. Based on the effects reported in phase 2, a medium effect size was used (d=.50). To ensure a 90% chance of finding an effect (with pb .05, δ=3.30), there was a need for 66 participants. Data were collected from 71 (34 men) undergraduate business students at a large public university who participated in the study for course credit. Participants were randomly assigned to a condition and to one of the two leader stimuli from that condition. All participants read a transcript of one of the leadership speeches from phase 2 and then completed measures and performance task.

7.1.1. Measures All of the measures used were the same as in phase 2. On the manipulation checks, participants reported high levels of internal

consistency on both the positive mood (Cronbach's α=.84) and negative mood (Cronbach's α=.87) scales. Similarly, the positive activated mood (Cronbach's α=.85) and negative activated mood (Cronbach's α=.75) scales of the JAS and the MLQ (Cronbach's α=.82) had high levels of internal consistency.

7.1.2. Performance The sameperformance task and scoringmethodwas used as inphase 2. The performance score consisted of the z-scored average

of participants' score on ranking the applicants and their score on the letter writing task. The letters were again rated by three coders, blind to condition, who had a high level of agreement (ICC=.83) and the scale had high internal consistency (Cronbach's α=.97).

7.2. Results and discussion

Intercorrelations of the study variables are reported in Table 5. First, the manipulation checks were tested using two independent sample t-tests. Therewere no differences between the positive and negativemood conditions onparticipants' perceptions of the leaders' positive mood t(69)=.68, pN .05 or negative mood t(69)=.19, pN .05. Two additional t-tests were conducted to test for differences between the stimuli for each condition. For the negativemood condition, participants reported no differences between the two negative mood stimuli on the positive t(33)=.70, pN .05 or negative t(33)=− .72, pN .05 mood manipulation check. Similarly, for the positive mood condition, participants reported no differences between the two positive mood stimuli on the positive t(34)=−1.46, pN .05 or negative t(34)=1.49, pN .05 mood manipulation check. Participants were unable to distinguish the positive mood leaders from the negative mood leaders, but also reported no differences between the two stimuli from each condition.

All hypotheses from phase 2 were tested in phase 3. Hypothesis 1, that leaders expressing positive mood would be attributed greater levels of charismatic leadership than leaders expressingnegativemoodwasagain supported (r(70)=.25,pb .05). Unlike phase 2, Hypotheses 2, 3a, and 3b were not supported. Leaders expressing positive mood did not elicit better performance (r(70)=.04, pN .05), more positive mood (r(70)=.20, pN .05), or less negative mood (r(70)=.08, pN .05) from followers than leaders expressing negative mood.

Although leaders' mood did not impact follower mood, the hypotheses related to followers' mood were tested. Hypothesis 4a, that followers' positive mood would positively impact followers' ratings of charismatic leadership, was supported (r(70)=.54, pb .001). However, Hypothesis 4b, that followers' negative mood would negatively impact followers' ratings of charismatic leadership was not supported (r(70)=− .04, pN .05). Finally, neither Hypotheses 5a (r(70)=− .04, pN .05) nor 5b (r(70)=− .15,

Table 5 Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations between variables in phase 3 (followers reading leaders' transcripts).

M SD 1 2 3 4 5

1. Mood condition a 0.51 .50 1 2. Follower positive mood 3.00 .79 .20 1 3. Follower negative mood 1.75 .71 .08 .15 1 4. Charismatic leadership 2.47 .62 .25 ⁎ .54 ⁎⁎⁎ − .04 1 5. Follower performance 0.00 .65 .04 − .04 − .15 − .03 1

Note. n=71. a Mood condition was coded as 0=negative mood (n=35), 1=positive mood (n=36).

⁎ pb .05. ⁎⁎ pb .005.

⁎⁎⁎ pb .001.

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pN .05), that followers' positive or negative mood impact performance were supported. In sum, leaders' mood (through the transcripts) only affected follower ratings of charismatic leadership. Leaders' mood did not impact followers' mood or followers' performance. The results from phase 3 suggest that the effects in phase 2 were largely caused by the delivery of the leaders' speeches, rather than the content of those speeches, although the leaders' charisma did translate into their transcribed speeches.

8. General discussion

The research presented here demonstrates that mood contagion from leaders to followers can have an important impact on followeroutcomes. Brief andWeiss (2002, p. 289) said that, “the organizational literature is populatedwithmanymore ideas about the leader's role in the production of moods and emotions than it is with relevant data.” The current study provides a thorough and rigorous testof the effects of leaders' expressedmoodsonorganizationally relevant followeroutcomes. In terms of termsof AET (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996), leaders' moods can elicit corresponding affective, attitudinal, and behavioral responses in followers. Indeed, leaders' mood was found to impact follower positive and negative mood, ratings of charismatic leadership, and performance on a selection task. More importantly, the resultant follower positive mood partially mediated the relationship between leader mood and follower ratings of charismatic leadership, and the resultant follower negative mood partially mediated the relationship between leader mood and follower performance.

Although not examined in this study, the effects of leader mood on follower moodmay be moderated by leader expressiveness, such that more expressive individuals are likely to be better senders of mood (Friedman & Riggio, 1981). Individuals who are more expressive are more likely to emerge as leaders and are perceived more positively as leaders (Groves, 2005; Kellett, Humphrey, & Sleeth, 2006). Leader trait positive affectivity (Rubin,Munz, & Bommer, 2005) and extraversion (Bono& Judge, 2004) are also linked to effective leadership. That is not to say that leadersmust always experience positivemoods, but they shouldwork to regulate their expressedmood to lead followers most effectively. Leaders use their moods and emotions to influence followers (Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000;Mio et al., 2005) and leader emotional intelligence is related to leadership emergence and success (Kellett et al., 2006; George, 2000; Goleman, 1998, 2000, Wolff, Pescosolido, & Druskat, 2002).

8.1. Follower mood

The findings from this study also advance what Barsade, Brief, and Spataro (2003) call the “affective revolution” in organizational behavior. In this study, follower negative mood impacted follower performance, whereas follower positive mood, which was unrelated to negative mood, was not related to follower performance. One explanation for this finding is that negative moods tend to have stronger specific action tendencies (“fight or flight”) than do positive moods, whereas positive mood tends to have more diffuse and vague responses (Fredrickson, 2001). Follower positive mood had a stronger impact on follower ratings of charismatic leadership than did follower negative mood. However, the effects of mood on ratings of charismatic leadership might be attenuated in situations in which followers already have a well-formed impression of their leader. In terms of Forgas' (1995) Affect Infusion Model, mood is less likely to influence perceptions in direct access processing, in which one has a preexisting evaluation of the person he or she is evaluating. Mood is most likely to influence perceptions in situations, such as this laboratory study, in which one engages in heuristic processing or substantive processing.

Yet, when relationships between leaders and followers begin, followers have to engage in heuristic and/or substantive processing to form initial impressions. In those early interactions, follower mood may influence impressions of the leader. Employers may seek ways to boost employees' mood at work, such as providing flex-time or small inducements to employees. They might also look for ways to alleviate negative mood, such as relieving stressful situations and uncomfortable working conditions. Indeed, previous research has shown that even small changes to the environment can impact individuals' mood (Baron, 1990). Future research is needed to examine the relationship between mood and performance in different work settings.

However, it should be noted that the expectation that negative affect leads to negative outcomes and positive affect leads to positive outcomes is not universally true. In some instances, negative affect may lead to favorable outcomes (Connelly et al., 2002), and in others positive affect can lead to unfavorable outcomes. For example, charismatic leadership is often associated with the rejection of the status quo (Conger & Kanungo, 1998), which may require leaders to display negative affect or anger. Lerner and Keltner (2000) found that anger can result in optimistic judgments toward future events. Similarly, Zhou and George (2002) and George and Zhou (2002) found that high levels of negative affect can result in greater levels of creativity than low levels of negative affect under certain conditions. Moreover, positive mood can result in greater reliance on stereotypes because of the association between positive affect and heuristic processing (e.g., Park & Banjai, 2000). Future research should continue to examine the situational determinants and boundary conditions of the affect–performance relationship.

8.2. Limitations and implications

There were several limitations to the current study. In terms of the methodology, it is important to note that all of the comparisons of mood were between positive and negative mood rather than comparing each to a neutral mood condition. Therefore, it is unclear whether the effects were driven by leaders' negative mood, or positive mood. In addition, the directionality among the follower variables (e.g., follower mood affects follower ratings of charismatic leadership) is not without question. It is possible that the ratings were influenced by halo bias resulting from the mood contagion experienced by followers and followers'

825S.K. Johnson / The Leadership Quarterly 20 (2009) 814–827

responses on the first questionnaire (self-reported mood) influenced their responses on the second questionnaire (ratings of charismatic leadership).

However, in phase 3 of this study, leader mood impacted follower ratings of charismatic leadership, but did not impact follower mood. This suggests that halo bias or ordering effects were not the cause of follower ratings of charismatic leadership in phase 3, making it less likely that was the case in phase 2. Bono and Ilies (2006) also found that leader positive mood lead to better ratings of charismatic leadership, but did not impact other ratings of the leader (attractiveness) suggesting that halo was not the cause of the ratings. Also there is evidence that individuals' affective reactions to stimuli often precede their cognitive evaluation of stimuli (Zajonc, 1980). For the relationship between follower mood and performance, the study was designed so that followers completed all of their measures before beginning their performance task, supporting the directionality of this relationship as well. In addition, it should be noted that difference in leader behavior in phase 1 could have been the result of some process other than induced affect, such as demand characteristics of the experiment.

Of concernwas the non-significant manipulation check for self-reported positive mood among leaders in phase 1, as a result of the affect induction. There is evidence that individuals do not always have access to their moods and emotions and may be influenced by social desirability in responding when self-reporting their moods and emotions (Barrett, 1996). It is possible that even individuals who received the negative mood induction chose to report experiencing more positive mood, because it is the more socially desirable response. The same should also have been true for negative mood, although there were differences reported there. There were differences in expressed positive and negative mood, which should be relatively accurate measures of mood (Gross et al., 2000).

A related problem is the self-report measure of follower negative mood in phase 2. The measure of high negative affect had low levels of internal consistency and multiple factors emerged from its factor analysis and the resulting measure represented anger more than negative affect. The structure of the measure could reflect individual differences in valance or arousal focus and social desirability in responding (Barrett, 1996). Another possibility is that, since follower affect was induced through mood contagion, followers may actually have “caught” the emotion of anger from leaders, rather than general negative mood. Emotional contagion research has indicated differences in the contagion of discrete negative emotions, rather than more general valence contagion, such as negative mood (Doherty, 1997).

The difficultywith themeasure presents a problem for the generalizability of the findings for anger to negativemood in general. That is, this study did not demonstrate the effect of negative mood on performance, but rather, demonstrated the effect of anger on performance. However, the focus on anger does allow us to compare our work to previous leadership work. McColl-Kennedy and Anderson (2002) found that follower frustration mediated the relationship between transformation leadership and follower sales performance. Followers of more transformational leaders experienced lower levels of frustration and, therefore better sales performance. Further, other research has demonstrated that anger negatively impacts social information processing, whereas the negative emotion of sadness has no effect on information processing (Bodenhausen, Sheppard, & Kramer, 1994). Therefore, it is possible that the effects of negativemood in the current studywould not have beenproducedhad a different negative state (i.e., fear, sadness, general negativemood) been induced. All of these concerns result in amore general concern about the interpretation of the findings. It is possible that leaders who did not receive the gift became angry, did a poor job of leadership, and therefore, had more negative follower outcomes (mood, charisma ratings, performance).

In addition, the use of students as leaders and followers and the lack of interpersonal interactions between the leaders and followers raise concern over the generalizability of the findings. The laboratory environment may explain the non-significant relationship between follower ratings of charismatic leadership and follower performance, despite a wealth of other evidence demonstrating this relationship (Lowe et al., 1996). However, using leaders and followers with a history of interactionwouldmake it difficult, if not impossible, to isolate the role of mood contagion and follower mood on follower ratings of their leader's charismatic leadership and performance. Moreover, Locke (1986) has demonstrated high levels of similarity between laboratory and field research. And, as noted by Mook (1983), laboratory experiments provide insight on what can happen in various situations, rather than what does happen.

8.3. Conclusion

Despite these limitations, the current findings significantly advance our understanding of mood contagion in leadership. While previous theory has suggested that leaders may influence their followers via mood contagion, the current study tested this hypothesis quantitatively in a controlled laboratory setting. These findings demonstrate compellingly that leaders' moods can influence follower positive and negative mood through mood contagion, and that follower subsequent mood influences their ratings of charismatic leadership and performance. Follower mood may, therefore, explain some of the effects of leader mood on follower outcomes.

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Human Resource Management, March–April 2015, Vol. 54, No. 2. Pp. 241–264

© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com).

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21669

Correspondence to: Janet A. Boekhorst, School of Human Resource Management, York University, 4700 Keele

Street, Toronto, Canada M3J 1P3, Phone: 416-736-2100 ext. 33672, Fax: 416-736-5188, E-mail: [email protected].

THE ROLE OF AUTHENTIC

LEADERSHIP IN FOSTERING

WORKPLACE INCLUSION:

A  SOCIAL INFORMATION

PROCESSING PERSPECTIVE

J A N E T A . B O E K H O R S T

The extant literature has largely overlooked the importance of a climate for

inclusion as a response to the growing trend of workplace diversity. This

conceptual article contends that an organization-wide change effort compris-

ing several reinforcing processes aimed at creating a climate for inclusion is

needed to institutionalize workplace inclusion. Drawing on social information

processing theory, authentic leaders are posited to transmit social informa-

tion about the importance of inclusion into the work environment through

inclusive leader role modeling. Reward systems that remunerate inclusive

conduct can foster the vicarious learning of inclusive conduct by followers.

Large and diverse workgroups offer a plethora of opportunities for followers

to learn how to behave in an inclusive manner. Authentic leaders and follow-

ers who share cooperative goals related to developing a climate for inclu-

sion can prompt the vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors by followers,

thereby facilitating goal attainment for both parties. Theoretical and practical

implications are discussed. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Keywords: social information processing theory, climate for inclusion, in- tegration-and-learning, authentic leadership, reward systems, group com- position, group size, goal interdependence

Introduction

O rganizations are experiencing a prominent trend of an increas- ingly diverse workforce, thereby underscoring the earnest need for leaders to effectively attend to the

changing nature of the workplace (Chavez &

Weisinger, 2008; Lirio, Lee, Williams, Haugen, & Kossek, 2008; McKay, Avery, & Morris, 2009; Pless & Maak, 2004; Sanchez-Burks, Bartel, & Blount, 2009; Scott, Heathcote, & Gruman, 2011). Through a review of the di- versity literature, Shore et al. (2009) conclude that, until recently, researchers have largely examined diversity from the perspective

242 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, MARCH–APRIL 2015

Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm

This article presents

a conceptual model

that explains why

authentic leaders

are a key source of

social information

that can significantly

influence the

formation of a

climate for inclusion.

Building upon these dominant themes of inclusion and in line with the general con- ceptualization of work climate (e.g., Reichers & Schneider, 1990; Schneider, 1990), the term climate for inclusion is defined as the shared perception of the work environment including the practices, policies, and proce- dures that guide a shared understanding that inclusive behaviors, which foster belong- ingness and uniqueness, are expected, sup- ported, and rewarded. This article seeks to understand how inclusion can be institu- tionalized in the work environment by draw- ing on social information processing theory as an overarching theoretical framework (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). More specifically, the integration-and-learning paradigm (Ely & Thomas, 2001; Thomas & Ely, 1996) is offered as a prelude to the following discussion. This paradigm posits that when organizations sin- cerely value and embrace diversity by linking it to work processes, tasks, and strategies, the result is a significant improvement in terms of group functioning (Ely & Thomas, 2001; Thomas & Ely, 1996). However, employees will only apply their individual differences if they feel comfortable in the workplace. In support, Tulenko and Kryder (1990) found that employees must feel comfortable in order to be creative, which undoubtedly involves the application of individual differences. Moreover, employees from underrepresented groups often experience discrimination, exclusion, and marginalization (Goldman, Gutek, Stein, & Lewis, 2006). These feelings tend to have a direct negative influence on their desire and capacity to contribute to the organization (L. Roberson & Block, 2001). Henceforth, a climate for inclusion, which engenders a sense of belongingness and uniqueness, provides the comfort needed for employees to apply their individual differ- ences to work processes, strategies, and tasks. It is therefore imperative to understand how a climate for inclusion can be institutionalized.

This article presents a conceptual model that explains why authentic leaders are a key source of social information that can signifi- cantly influence the formation of a climate for inclusion. Authentic leaders can help their followers understand the value of individual

of a single facet, including race, ethnicity, and gender. Often this research has been grounded in its originating paradigms that center mostly on the problems, such as biases and discrimination, associated with diversity (Shore et  al., 2009). However, recently this area of research has focused on examining the value inherent in diversity and workplace inclusion (Bilimoria, Joy, & Liang, 2008; Nishii, 2013; Q. M. Roberson, 2006).

More specifically, there has been a grow- ing interest toward examining how nontradi- tional internal processes can foster workplace inclusion (Shore et  al., 2011). For instance, Wasserman, Gallegos, and Ferdman (2008) assert that leaders are instrumental in cham-

pioning inclusion initiatives. Instead of silencing resistance to inclusion initiatives, lead- ers must engage with such resis- tance to support the vision of an inclusive workplace (Wasserman et  al., 2008). Indeed, inclusion is a nascent construct that is con- ceptually and empirically distinct from diversity (Shore et al., 2011). Broadly speaking, inclusion refers to employee involvement and the integration of diversity into organizational systems and pro- cesses, whereas diversity refers to the variability in the composition of a work group (Q. M. Roberson, 2006). Although several concep- tualizations of inclusion have

been proposed in the literature (e.g., Lirio et al., 2008; Q. M. Roberson, 2006), two gen- eral themes of belongingness and unique- ness emerge from these definitions (Shore et al., 2011). The belongingness theme reflects a sense of acceptance for all organizational members, whereas the uniqueness theme implies that the contributions of all employ- ees are valued whereby each member experi- ences respect and the opportunity for voice in the workplace. The commonalties across these definitions suggest that we need to begin understanding how this type of work climate can be fostered to provide all employ- ees the opportunity to experience a sense of belongingness and uniqueness.

WORKPLACE INCLUSION AND SOCIAL INFORMATION PROCESSING 243

Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm

This article offers several important theo- retical contributions. First, the social infor- mation processing perspective (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978) is used to understand why authentic leaders are a particularly important determinant in the formation of an inclusive climate. In doing so, this research deepens our understanding of the integration-and- learning paradigm by exploring how authen- tic leaders can foster a climate for inclusion, thereby enabling employees to feel comfort- able so they can apply their individual differ- ences to work processes. Second, the social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) explains how authentic leaders can shape a climate for inclusion by role modeling inclusive conduct for their followers. The central moral value of inclusion is a key individual difference that differentiates the authentic leaders who are the most effective role models. Third, the dynamic formation of an inclusive climate is taken into account by examining how follow- ers who vicariously learn how to behave in an inclusive manner can indirectly help foster a climate for inclusion. Fourth, organizational- and group-level factors (i.e., reward systems, workgroup composition, group size, and goal interdependence) can influence follow- ers’ vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors, thereby deepening our understanding of how important structures and processes can indi- rectly influence the formation of an inclusive climate.

In the following, an overview of orga- nizational climate and culture is presented within the context of workplace inclusion. Thereafter, the social information processing theory and the importance of authentic lead- ership are discussed. The conceptual model is then presented along with the research propositions. This article concludes with a discussion of the theoretical and practical implications along with directions for future research.

Organizational Climate and Organizational Culture

Organizational climate can be defined as the shared perception of the work environment, including the procedures, policies, and

differences by using their elevated status to seek out opportunities to support and encour- age followers to apply their individual differ- ences to improve work processes. Since the integration-and-learning perspective empha- sizes the need for several reinforcing systems and processes (Thomas & Ely, 1996), the role of organizational reward systems, workgroup composition, group size, and goal interdepen- dence are also explored because these factors are fundamental in reinforcing the impor- tance of workplace inclusion. Taken together, this article explores how an organization- wide change effort aimed at institutionalizing workplace inclusion through the formation of a climate for inclusion can enable employ- ees to apply their individual differences to work processes, strategies, and tasks.

In doing so, this article contributes to several calls for this much-needed research. Q. M. Roberson (2006) contends that research is sorely needed pertaining to the determi- nants of inclusive work climates. Shore et al. (2011) assert “much research is still needed to understand how organizations can create inclusive environments that provide oppor- tunities for the variety of people who work together in our global economy” (p. 1275). Moreover, Wasserman et  al. (2008) specifi- cally contend that leaders have a particularly instrumental role in shaping an inclusive workplace. Indeed, researchers have long rec- ognized the importance of leaders in shap- ing climate perceptions (Dragoni, 2005). Leaders communicate their own meanings and interpretations of organizational sys- tems by serving as “interpretive filters” of practices, policies, and procedures (Ostroff, Kinicki, & Tamkins, 2003). In doing so, lead- ers provide a common reference point for employees that in turn limits the variation in employee interpretations of the work cli- mate (Ashforth, 1985). Leaders have thus been coined “meaning managers” (Rentsch, 1990) and “climate engineers” (Naumann & Bennett, 2000). Although there are a num- ber of studies that demonstrate how specific leadership styles can shape facet-specific cli- mates (e.g., Ehrhart, 2004; Hsiung, 2012), limited research has examined how leader- ship can foster a climate for inclusion.

244 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, MARCH–APRIL 2015

Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm

Climate for

inclusion is defined

as the shared

perception of the

work environment

comprising the

practices, policies,

and procedures

that guide a shared

understanding that

inclusive behaviors,

which foster a sense

of belongingness

and uniqueness,

are expected,

supported, and

rewarded.

Organizational culture manifests through three layers that differ in terms of subjectivity and accessibility (Schein, 1990). First, artifacts are highly observable elements (e.g., rituals, dress, myths, stories, symbols, and language) that are underpinned by values, beliefs, and assumptions that represent the outermost layer of culture. Second, espoused values reflect the middle layer of culture and are moder- ately accessible organizational values and philosophies. Third, underlying assumptions are unobservable taken-for-granted assump- tions, values, and beliefs that influence employee perceptions, attitudes, and behav- iors that represent the innermost layer of cul- ture. The culture of inclusion construct has also recently been introduced into the litera- ture (e.g., Mujtaba, 2013; Pless & Maak, 2004; Wasserman et al., 2008). Culture of inclusion is defined as the shared values, assumptions, and beliefs about the importance of unique- ness and belongingness in fostering work- place inclusion that are communicated to newcomers to explain how this has helped the organization address prior issues related to internal integration and external adapta- tion. This definition draws on the meaning of organizational culture (Schneider et al., 2013) and the two core themes of inclusion (Shore et al., 2011).

Climate and culture are distinct, albeit overlapping, constructs (Reichers & Schneider, 1990). Climate is rooted in psychological research concerned with the impact of climate on individuals using predominantly quantita- tive methods that are often employed across multiple organizations (Denison, 1996). In contrast, culture has anthropological roots concerned with understanding how social sys- tems evolve using predominantly qualitative methods in a single organization (Denison, 1996). Henceforth, climate has a personal frame of reference and culture has a system frame of reference (L. R. James et al., 1990). Climate also focuses on relatively enduring surface-level manifestations of organizational life, whereas culture focuses on highly endur- ing beliefs, values, and assumptions that are embedded in organizational life (Denison, 1996; Moran & Volkwein, 1992). In other words, climate involves employee perceptions

practices that guide the expected, supported, and rewarded behaviors (Reichers & Schneider, 1990; Schneider, 1990; Schneider, White, & Paul, 1998). An organizational cli- mate manifests when employees collectively share perceptions of the nature of the work environment (L. R. James, James, & Ashe, 1990). The theoretical and methodological concerns associated with the global concep- tualization of climate have resulted in a shift

toward the focus on a climate for something (Schneider, 1990)— that is, a climate with a specific referent, such as safety (Zohar, 1980), innovation (Anderson & West, 1998), and service (Schneider et  al., 1998). Researchers have recently introduced the construct of a climate for inclusion (e.g., Nishii, 2013; Shore et al., 2011). As previously alluded to, climate for inclusion is defined as the shared perception of the work environment comprising the prac- tices, policies, and procedures that guide a shared understanding that inclusive behaviors, which foster a sense of belongingness and uniqueness, are expected, sup- ported, and rewarded. This defini- tion is based on the widely accepted meaning of work climate (e.g., Reichers & Schneider, 1990; Schneider, 1990) and the two dominant themes of inclusion in the extant literature (Shore et al., 2011).

Schneider, Erhart, and Macey (2013) comprehensively define organizational culture as the shared values, assumptions, and

beliefs that are communicated to newcom- ers through myths and stories about how the organization addressed prior issues of inter- nal integration and external adaptation that have shaped its present form. In other words, employees are taught how they should think, feel, and behave according to the behav- iors that the organization used to over- come prior problems, thereby validating the importance of these actions (Schein, 2010).

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can transmit social cues in the workplace regarding the importance and expectation for inclusive behaviors. Prior to doing so, the three dominant paradigms that explain how organi- zations can approach diversity are introduced whereby the integration-and-learning para- digm is offered as a prelude to the conceptual model (Ely & Thomas, 2001).

First, the discrimination-and-fairness para- digm asserts that there is a moral responsi- bility to eliminate discrimination to ensure fair treatment and equal opportunities for all employees; however, this approach tends to result in assimilation and poor group func- tioning. Second, the access-and-legitimacy paradigm posits that access to specific target markets can occur by altering the workforce to mirror the primary characteristics of the target markets. Although this approach tends to result in moderate outcomes, employees are made aware of their differences. Third, the integration-and-learning paradigm values diversity as a resource, whereby diversity is linked to work processes, strategies, and tasks. The integration of all employees into the workplace facilitates sharing of diverse perspectives and insights about work-related matters resulting in cross-cultural learning. This approach results in the most beneficial outcomes for employees and the organiza- tion. The integration-and-learning perspec- tive is adopted as a prelude to the conceptual model because a climate for inclusion is pos- ited to foster feelings of comfort, thereby enabling employees to apply their individual differences in the work environment.

Moreover, the meanings and interpreta- tions of the work environment are socially constructed (L. R. James et al., 1990; L. R. James & McIntyre, 1996). The behavioral repertories of organizations are malleable because the information derived from the social environ- ment is fluid (e.g., Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). The prominent sources of social information tend to derive from those with high status (e.g., Copeland, 1994). Status and power dif- ferences are nearly inherent within any group dynamic (Magee & Galinsky, 2008), and these status differences can have a pervasive influ- ence on employee perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors (Bunderson & Reagans, 2011).

of what happens in the organization and cul- ture focuses on why it happens (Ostroff et al., 2003).

Nevertheless, climate and culture both focus on the meaning-making process that individuals use to make sense of their work environment that is learned through social interactions with others (Kuenzi & Schminke, 2009; Schneider et  al., 2013). There is an inherent overlapping nature of these con- structs that occurs through the link between assumptions (culture) and perceptions (cli- mate) (Ashforth, 1985). In short, climate manifests from culture (Schein, 1990) because culture influences organizational procedures, policies, and practices (Ostroff et  al., 2003). In other words, the deeply embedded values, assumptions, and beliefs of culture influence the organizational system that in turn shapes employee perceptions of the work climate (Moran & Volkwein, 1992). Notwithstanding, Moran and Volkwein (1992) also posit that short-term factors, such as leadership style, can also influence climate perceptions. Taken together, culture influences organizational structures that are collectively interpreted by employees, thereby shaping climate percep- tions (Ostroff et al., 2003).

Social Information Processing, Integration and Learning, and Workplace Inclusion

The social information processing perspective (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978) explains that indi- viduals make meaning of their environment based on processing the social information in the workplace. In other words, employees socially construct their perceptions and atti- tudes based on the social cues within the work- place that in turn influences their behavior (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). As previously alluded to, the extent to which a work climate repre- sents a specific facet is contingent on the inter- pretations of the attributes of the work environment (L. R. James et  al., 1990). An established critique of this theory is that it fails to adequately explain how information is dis- persed among individuals (Contractor & Eisenberg, 1990). In response, social learning theory is used to explain how authentic leaders

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Leaders are

instrumental in

shaping shared

climate perceptions

because followers

tend to rely on their

daily interactions

with their leaders

to understand

the behavioral

expectations in the

workplace.

rather the leader’s authentic values, beliefs, and behaviors serve to model the develop- ment of associates” (p. 243). In other words, authentic leaders are self-regulating leaders who are positive role models for their follow- ers because they behave in accordance with their morals and values despite contradic- tory pressures (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009).

Broadly speaking, inclusive behaviors that can derive from an authentic leadership style include genuinely eliciting viewpoints from followers (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008), seeking follower input to facilitate participative decision- making (Pless & Maak, 2004), and encourag- ing open communication especially among employees whose voices may have other- wise been absent (Nembhard & Edmondson, 2006). Moreover, recent research provides several context-specific examples of inclusive behaviors. For instance, Munir, Yarker, Hicks, and Donaldson-Feilder (2012) explain that leaders can use an array of inclusive behav- iors (e.g., creating a phased return to work schedule; explaining changes to work pro- cesses and/or the job role; revising job duties to allow for a lighter workload) to help an employee transition back to work following a long-term sick leave. In a similar vein, Bell, Özbilgin, Beauregard, and Sürgevil (2011) contend that leaders can use specific inclusive behaviors (e.g., developing a diversity educa- tion program with a sexual orientation com- ponent; creating an open dialogue to reduce sexual orientation misperceptions) directed toward the integration of lesbian, gay, bisex- ual, and transgender (LGBT) employees into the workplace.

Although sufficient evidence supports the importance of authentic leaders as a key source of social influence to initiate and sus- tain an organization-wide initiative aimed at fostering workplace inclusion, several caveats must be noted. Authentic leaders, similar to most other individuals, may not always “do the right thing” and may also have prejudices and biases. However, since ethicality is central to authentic leadership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), these leaders tend to engage in ethical behaviors that are driven by their values and

Since work climate is learned through social interactions (Reichers & Schneider, 1990), the primary source of social information that can influence the formation of a climate for inclusion must be examined.

Research highlights the critical role of leaders in shaping employee perceptions of the work environment. McKay et  al. (2009) conclude that significant financial gains were achieved when leaders and subordi- nates shared perceptions of a workplace that socially integrated all employees and used fair personnel practices. Indeed, leaders are instrumental in shaping shared climate per-

ceptions because followers tend to rely on their daily interactions with their leaders to understand the behavioral expectations in the workplace (Schneider et  al., 1998). Kozlowski and Doherty (1989) further posit that “an indi- vidual’s immediate supervisor is the most salient, tangible repre- sentative of management actions, policies, and procedures” (p. 547). Organizational practices, proce- dures, and policies are interpreted by leaders and subsequently manifest through their actions and behaviors (Ostroff et  al., 2003). Followers use this informa- tion provided by their leaders to understand the behavioral expec- tations in the workplace (Rentsch, 1990). Henceforth, leaders are par- ticularly instrumental in shaping climate perceptions because they

serve as a salient source of social information for their followers.

Authentic leaders are particularly impor- tant in fostering a climate for inclusion because ethicality is central to this style of leadership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Followers tend to perceive these leaders as credible, respectful, and trustworthy because their actions and behaviors are aligned with their convictions and values (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004). Luthans and Avolio (2003) further state that “the authentic leader does not try to coerce or even rationally persuade associates, but

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Although authentic leaders may not always “do the right thing” all the time, there are several reinforcing mechanisms that can motivate these individuals to support work- place inclusion. Next, the conceptual model is presented.

The Formation of a Climate for  Inclusion: A Social Information Processing Perspective

In the following, the institutionalization of workplace inclusion is delineated through the social formation of a climate for inclu- sion. The conceptual model (Figure 1) depicts the research propositions. First, authentic leaders serve as role models, thereby high- lighting the behaviors that are expected from followers who in turn can positively influ- ence employee perceptions of a climate for inclusion. Second, organizational reward sys- tems that remunerate inclusive behaviors provide an impetus for followers to learn how to behave in an inclusive manner. Third, large and diverse workgroups present greater opportunities for followers to learn how to engage in inclusive conduct. Fourth,

beliefs system. Nevertheless, some authentic leaders may fail to “do the right thing” on occasion. Henceforth, an organization-wide change approach is presented to explain why authentic leaders may be particularly driven to act inclusive even if it is not in their moral imperative.

To illustrate, a reward system that remu- nerates inclusive behaviors provides a direct impetus for authentic leaders to engage in inclusive conduct. In support, Treviño (1990) found that reward systems that indicate the type of acceptable and unacceptable behav- iors tend to result in fewer unethical decisions. Authentic leaders who fail to adhere to these behavioral expectations may be disciplined by their superiors, which could become quite public given their elevated status and high visibility. Henceforth, reward systems can be critical in reinforcing the importance of workplace inclusion. Moreover, this article contends that authentic leaders have differ- ent central moral values, which explains why authentic leaders who value inclusion as a central moral value engage in more inclu- sive behaviors than authentic leaders who do not hold inclusion as a central moral value.

Note: The dashed line refers to the dispositional and behavioral characteristics that derive from authentic leadership.

FIGURE 1. An Organizationwide Approach to Developing a Climate for Inclusion

P6 P7

Inclusive Leader Role Modeling

Vicarious Learning of Inclusive Behaviors

by Followers

Climate for Inclusion

Dispositional Characteristic

– Central Moral Value of Inclusion

Authentic Leadership

Organizational Reward Systems

Workgroup Composition

P1 P2

P3

P4

P5 P8

Behavioral Characteristics

– Visibility – Complexity

– Novelty

Group Size Goal Interdependence

SOCIAL INFORMATION

ORGANIZATIONAL AND GROUP INFORMATION

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Authentic leaders

are particularly

important in

institutionalizing

workplace inclusion

because their

inherent ethical

nature drives their

decision-making

processes and

behaviors.

decision despite potential contradictions to his/her personal viewpoint. In other words, authentic leaders strive to make fair decisions by genuinely considering the perspectives of others. Lastly, internalized moral perspective represents a form of self-regulation whereby internalized morals and values guide deci- sion-making processes. Indeed, authentic leaders are particularly important in institu- tionalizing workplace inclusion because their inherent ethical nature drives their decision- making processes and behaviors.

Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977, 1986) further explains how authentic leaders can create a climate for inclusion. The values and belief systems of authentic leaders are embodied through their ethical verbal and nonverbal behaviors (Verplanken & Holland, 2002). Indeed, Sims (1992) defines ethical behavior as actions that are morally “good” as opposed to morally “bad.” Although Sims (1992) notes that this perspective inher- ently involves a grey area, morally “good” behaviors undoubtedly include inclusive behaviors. Henceforth, authentic lead- ers tend to engage in a variety of inclusive behaviors, which as previously  suggested, can broadly include genuinely valuing diverse perspectives, encouraging participa- tive decision-making, and supporting open communication.

More specifically, since authentic lead- ers are role models (Luthans & Avolio, 2003), their behaviors and actions signify the appro- priate and expected behavioral conduct from followers. Followers learn, as opposed to merely mimicking, which behaviors to rep- licate in the workplace through direct and indirect experience (Bandura, 1986). Direct experience occurs when followers replicate the observed behaviors. Authentic leaders who socially approve of these behaviors indi- rectly encourage replication of such behav- iors. In contrast, indirect experience occurs when followers engage in vicarious learning by observing the consequences arising from the behaviors of others, which either facili- tates or impedes followers’ motivation to produce similar behaviors (Bandura, 1986). Behaviors that are perceived to result in favor- able outcomes are usually replicated, while

authentic leaders and followers who share similar goals related to creating a climate for inclusion can entice followers to learn how to behave in an inclusive manner. The theoreti- cal arguments are constructed in detail next.

Authentic Leadership and a Climate for Inclusion

Organizational climate involves the mean- ings employees assign to organizational actions and attributes (L. A. James & James, 1989). In other words, climate reflects the “way things are around here” (Reichers & Schneider, 1990, p. 22). As previously alluded to, leaders play an instrumental role in the

formation of the work climate because it is primarily based on the values and belief systems of leaders (Dickson, Smith, Grojean, & Ehrhart, 2001). Since authentic leaders are role models who behave according to their strong values and belief systems (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), their interac- tions with their followers can per- vasively influence follower behavior (e.g., Buttner, Lowe, & Billings-Harris, 2010). Based on this line of reasoning, authentic leaders are critical in shaping a cli- mate for inclusion through the mediating role of inclusive leader role modeling.

There are four features of authentic leadership (Walumbwa et  al., 2008). First, self-awareness

occurs when a leader has an understanding of his/her strengths, weaknesses, impact on others, and own meaning-making process. In other words, authentic leaders who are self- aware are highly cognizant of their verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Second, relational transparency occurs when a leader behaves in a manner that represents his/her true nature. Stated differently, authentic leaders who are transparent present their genuine self that is in line with their internalized morals and values when leading others. Third, balanced processing occurs when a leader reviews and analyzes all information prior to making a

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Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm

Authentic leaders

are particularly

instrumental in

conveying the

expectations for

inclusive behaviors

through inclusive

leader role modeling,

thereby resulting

in perceptions of a

climate for inclusion.

on each value differs by each individual (Twenge, Campbell, Hoffman, & Lance, 2010). Nevertheless, there are central values that are the most influential in driving behav- ior (Deal & Kennedy, 1982). Although all authentic leaders have an internalized moral perspective (Walumbwa et al., 2008), the cen- tral moral value held by each authentic leader differs. There are many different moral val- ues, including trustworthiness, responsibility, and citizenship (Schwartz, 2005); however, authentic leaders who are driven by a moral perspective centered on inclusion are more likely to demonstrate verbal and nonverbal behaviors resembling inclusion than authen- tic leaders with a moral perspec- tive centered on a different moral value.

Since authentic leaders are characterized by relational trans- parency (Walumbwa et al., 2008), leaders with a central moral value of inclusion will tend to pres- ent their genuine self in accor- dance with this deeply held value. Moreover, these authentic leaders are highly self-aware and will also tend to engage in balanced deci- sion-making processes guided by this central moral value of inclu- sion (Walumbwa et  al., 2008). Thus, the salience of inclusion as a central value of authentic lead- ers tends to be highly apparent through their role modeling as evidenced through their actions, gestures, and words. Since values serve as regulatory guides (Lord & Brown, 2001), the central moral value of authentic leaders can moderate the positive relationship between authentic leadership and inclusive leader role modeling.

Proposition 2: The central moral value of inclu- sion will moderate the relationship between au- thentic leadership and inclusive leader role mod- eling, such that strong levels of the central moral value of inclusion will strengthen the positive rela- tionship between authentic leadership and inclu- sive leader role modeling compared to low levels of the central moral value of inclusion.

behaviors that are punished and/or fail to result in any rewards tend not to be replicated (Bandura, 1986). Followers encode this infor- mation into memory and through skill acqui- sition replication of similar behaviors tend to begin (Bandura, 1986).

In essence, authentic leaders are self- aware, transparent, and make balanced deci- sions guided by deeply held morals and values (Walumbwa et  al., 2008). Since leaders are instrumental in shaping a shared perception of the work climate (Dickson et  al., 2001), authentic leaders are particularly instrumen- tal in conveying the expectations for inclu- sive behaviors through inclusive leader role modeling, thereby resulting in perceptions of a climate for inclusion.

Proposition 1: Inclusive leader role modeling me- diates the positive relationship between authentic leadership and a climate for inclusion.

The Moderating Role of the Central Moral

Value of Inclusion

Although authentic leaders naturally demon- strate inclusive behaviors through their role modeling, their central values are a key indi- vidual difference that can result in certain authentic leaders who are more effective role models than others. More specifically, authentic leaders with a central moral value of inclusion are posited to engage in more inclusive leader role modeling than authen- tic leaders who do not prioritize inclusion as a central moral value. Since values drive behavior (Verplanken & Holland, 2002), authentic leaders who strongly value inclu- sion are more likely to exhibit behaviors that resemble a sense of belongingness and uniqueness. Indeed, these leaders tend to exhibit inclusive behaviors more frequently than those with a moral perspective grounded in a different central moral value. Thus, authentic leaders who strongly value inclu- sion as a central moral value are uniquely influential in shaping a climate for inclusion.

Values are lasting beliefs regarding the types of behavior that are most preferred, thereby guiding future actions (Rokeach, 1979); however, the importance placed

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The relationship

between inclusive

leader role modeling

and the formation of

an inclusive climate

requires careful

consideration of the

followers because

they occupy a vital

role in shaping a

climate for inclusion.

and awareness to the observed behaviors (Bandura, 1977). In contrast, covert behaviors are difficult to observe, and thus gathering the needed behavioral information is diffi- cult. Visible behaviors also allow for improved retention of the observed behaviors due to a more accurate cognitive absorption of the behavioral details. This detailed retention of the behavioral characteristics strengthens the rules or codes of the observed behaviors into memory, thereby positively influencing vicar- ious learning by followers (Bandura, 1977). Authentic leaders who engage in highly visi- ble inclusive behaviors can improve the over- all learning process of how to properly enact inclusive behaviors by followers (Bandura, 1977). These arguments are summarized in the following proposition.

Proposition 3a: The visibility of the leader’s inclu- sive behaviors will be positively related to follow- ers’ vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors.

Complexity and Novelty of Behaviors

The complexity and novelty of the inclusive behaviors demonstrated by authentic leaders can also directly influence followers’ vicari- ous learning of such behaviors. When authen- tic leaders engage in complex and novel inclusive behaviors, it becomes very difficult for followers to attend to all of the behavioral details because greater cognitive processing is required. Indeed, Jassawalla and Sashittal (1999) found that collaborative behaviors involving product development processes are complex and difficult for employees to learn. Similarly, authentic leaders who engage in complex and novel inclusive behaviors tend to make it difficult for followers to learn these behaviors, resulting in an associated decrease in vicarious learning. This impaired learning process hinders followers’ ability to learn how to replicate similar behaviors in future work- place interactions.

Since complex and novel behaviors require more thoughtful cognitive pro- cessing, followers can easily overlook criti- cal information, leading to inaccurate or incomplete coding of the observed behaviors (Bandura, 1977). Indeed, early research has reported that nonlinear rules are associated

The Dynamic Interplay Between Leaders and Followers in Forming a Climate for Inclusion

The relationship between inclusive leader role modeling and the formation of an inclu- sive climate requires careful consideration of the followers because they occupy a vital role in shaping a climate for inclusion. There are two overarching processes that underpin how followers can vicariously learn about work- place inclusion (Gioia & Manz, 1985). First, the cognitive process includes follower atten- tion and retention of the observed behaviors demonstrated by an authentic leader (Bandura, 1977). Second, the behavioral pro-

cess relies on cognitive processing and motivation to reproduce the observed behaviors (Bandura, 1977). The following discussion elaborates on this dynamic inter- play between leaders, followers, and the formation of a climate for inclusion.

In line with social learning the- ory (Bandura, 1986), three behav- ioral characteristics of authentic leaders are posited to directly influ- ence followers’ vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors. First, the visibility of behaviors refers to the extent to which leaders’ behaviors are accessible and observable to followers. Second, the complexity of behaviors reflects the extent to which leaders’ behaviors resem- ble an intricate and complicated

arrangement of components that make it dif- ficult for followers to understand the nature of the behavior. Third, the novelty of behaviors refers to the extent to which leaders’ behav- iors are original and unfamiliar to followers.

Visibility of Behaviors

The extent to which authentic leaders’ behav- iors are visible to followers will significantly influence followers’ ability to vicariously learn these inclusive behaviors. Authentic leaders who engage in highly visible inclusive behaviors bestow the opportunity for followers to devote the required attention

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the role model. In other words, followers must carefully observe the behaviors of authentic leaders with sufficient detail to understand how they can replicate the observed behav- iors. Authentic leaders serve as important role models (Luthans & Avolio, 2003), and their inherent power, visibility, and legitimacy pro- vide the leverage needed to positively influ- ence follower behavior (Wood & Bandura, 1989). For example, recent empirical research found that abusive manager behavior is posi- tively linked to abusive supervisor behavior and in turn is positively linked to interper- sonal deviance at the employee level (Mawritz, Mayer, Hoobler, Wayne, & Marinova, 2012). These researchers used social learning theory to explain why employees often look to their leader’s behavior to guide their own behavior and conduct within the work environment.

Second, followers must engage in the retention of the behaviors of authentic lead- ers in some symbolic form for later replica- tion (Bandura, 1972, 1986). The failure to retain the details of the observed behaviors can make it very difficult for followers to engage in behaviors that are similar to those that have been observed. Henceforth, suffi- cient attention and retention of the observed behaviors by followers enable for successful modeling of inclusive behaviors. Moreover, followers must retrieve the symbolic repre- sentations to guide their reproduction of the observed behaviors (Bandura, 1972, 1986). In other words, followers seek to emulate inclu- sive behaviors based on their observation of the behaviors of authentic leaders. The rep- lication of the inclusive behaviors is likely to occur, provided the followers have the physi- cal and cognitive capacity to replicate the observed behaviors.

Finally, replication of the behaviors of authentic leaders are also contingent upon motivational and reinforcement processes (Bandura, 1972, 1986). Followers must possess a desire to reproduce the observed behaviors, which is partially contingent upon reinforce- ment, in order for modeling of the observed behaviors to occur. As previously alluded to, behaviors that are received negatively by lead- ers (e.g., discipline, punishment) discourages employees from adopting such behaviors,

with greater learning difficulties than lin- ear rules (Brehmer, Hagafors, & Johansson, 1980). Complex and novel behaviors require greater attention and retention of the behav- ioral details because the unfamiliar nature of these behaviors requires greater awareness and attention to leaders’ behavioral processes for successful replication. It may be difficult for some followers to reproduce complex and novel behaviors because they may not have the necessary capabilities needed to effec- tively replicate the observed behaviors. Since successful replication of complex and novel behaviors is difficult, there tends to be an associated decrease in the followers’ motiva- tion to replicate behaviors that are complex and novel (Bandura, 1977). The following propositions are offered in support of these arguments.

Proposition 3b: The complexity of the leader’s in- clusive behaviors will be negatively related to fol- lowers’ vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors.

Proposition 3c: The novelty of the leader’s inclu- sive behaviors will be negatively related to follow- ers’ vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors.

Followers’ Vicarious Learning

Authentic leaders are particularly instrumen- tal in guiding the inclusive conduct of their followers. In further support, Hannah, Avolio, and Walumbwa (2011) found that followers’ moral courage mediated the relationship between authentic leadership and followers’ ethical and prosocial behaviors. In other words, authentic leaders can effectively guide followers toward engaging in ethical behav- iors, refraining from engaging in unethical behaviors, and behaving in a manner that promotes the well-being and integrity of oth- ers (Hannah et al., 2011). In the following, the interplay between inclusive leader role modeling and followers’ learning of inclusive behaviors is examined to understand how the replication of authentic leaders’ behaviors can occur.

There are four conditions that must be satisfied for successful role modeling to occur (Bandura, 1972, 1986). First, followers must devote sufficient attention to the behavior of

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Although authentic

leaders play an

important role in

shaping a climate

for inclusion, an

organization-wide

support system is

needed for complete

institutionalization of

workplace inclusion.

organizational and group processes, struc- tures, and strategies) influence the applica- tion of diversity to work processes. In this section, the role of organizational reward sys- tems, workgroup composition, group size, and goal structures are examined on follow- ers’ vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors.

Reward Systems

Organizational reward systems entail mone- tary and nonmonetary means in which to recognize employees for specific behaviors and achievements (Bartol & Srivastava, 2002). Reward systems directly influence the infor- mation in the social environment by indicat- ing the nature of the behaviors expected from employees (Kerr, 1975). As previously alluded to, followers learn how to behave in the work- place by avoiding replicating behaviors that are punished and replicating behaviors that are rewarded (Bandura, 1977). Henceforth, the organizational reward system is a key organizational process that dictates the type of behaviors expected in the workplace by rewarding those behaviors that are expected from employees (Colville & Millner, 2011).

Organizations that adopt an organization- wide change effort aimed at recognizing the value of all employees by meaningfully inte- grating diversity into work processes require a reward system that supports this process. Indeed, the integration-and-learning perspec- tive involves employees sharing their diverse insights in order to offer fresh ideas to improve work processes (Thomas & Ely, 1996). Since this process requires employees to construc- tively challenge and learn from each other, there is an implicit need for inclusive inter- actions. Reward systems that encourage and reward inclusive behaviors can prompt such behaviors from employees (e.g., Podsakoff, Podsakoff, & Kuskova, 2010). In support, Ferrin and Dirks (2003) found that employ- ees shared more knowledge with their peers when the reward system supported knowl- edge sharing; however, competitive reward systems that failed to remunerate knowledge sharing resulted in less information sharing among employees (Ferrin & Dirks, 2003). This research suggests that followers will engage in

whereas behaviors that are received posi- tively by leaders (e.g., praised, rewarded) encourage future replication of such behav- iors (Bandura, 1986). In other words, the con- sequences associated with certain behaviors inevitably signal to employees the expected behavioral conduct in the workplace. For example, an employee who observes a col- league receiving praise for his/her inclusive conduct signals to other employees that the

leader positively views this form of behavioral conduct. This outcome reinforces the acceptableness of the behavior, thereby encouraging others to adopt similar behaviors. The aforementioned arguments are summarized in the following proposition.

Proposition 4: Vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors by followers will moderate the relationship between inclusive leader role modeling and a climate for inclusion, such that strong levels of vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors by followers will strengthen the positive relationship between in- clusive leader role modeling and a climate for inclusion compared to low

levels of vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors by followers.

The Infl uence of Organizational and Group Processes, Structures, and Strategies

The integration-and-learning perspective (Ely & Thomas, 2001) posits that an organization- wide change effort can allow for meaningful integration of diversity into work processes. As previously suggested, a climate for inclu- sion is an important mechanism in which to facilitate feelings of comfort, thereby enabling all employees to apply their individual differ- ences in the workplace. Although authentic leaders play an important role in shaping a climate for inclusion, an organization- wide support system is needed for complete institutionalization of workplace inclusion. This perspective indicates that it is necessary to consider how other social factors (e.g.,

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whereas culturally homogeneous groups are com- posed of group members that share the same national and/or ethnic background (Watson, Kumar, & Michaelsen, 1993). Culturally diverse workgroups tend to have significant differences in the perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors among group members (Thomas & Ely, 1996). Indeed, these differences provide authentic leaders a greater number of high- quality opportunities to imbue social cues about the importance of workplace inclu- sion into the work environment (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). In other words, authentic leaders can easily seek out opportunities to help employees apply their individual differ- ences to work processes, tasks, and strategies. Subsequently, there are greater opportuni- ties for followers to vicariously learn how to engage in inclusive behaviors by observing the behaviors of authentic leaders. In support, Gurin, Dey, Hurtado, and Gurin (2002) found that students that had more interactions with peers from diverse backgrounds experienced more positive learning outcomes, including intellectual engagement and active thinking.

Conversely, culturally homogeneous work- groups are negatively related to vicariously learning of inclusive behaviors by followers because there are fewer opportunities for fol- lowers to learn how to behave in an inclusive manner. Indeed, homogeneous workgroups tend to be associated with fewer diverse view- points and perspectives (e.g., Hoffman & Maier, 1961). From an integration-and-learn- ing perspective, there are fewer high-quality opportunities for authentic leaders to help followers apply their individual differences to their work processes and tasks that in turn lead to fewer inclusive behaviors. For exam- ple, homogeneous workgroups tend to have relatively similar viewpoints, leading to fewer opportunities to respectfully challenge the viewpoints of others. Indeed, McLeod, Lobel, and Cox (1996) found that culturally similar workgroups had lower-quality ideas than cul- turally diverse workgroups. Taken together, diverse workgroups tend to present more opportunities for authentic leaders to engage in inclusive behaviors. Henceforth, there are more opportunities for followers to vicariously learn how to emulate inclusive behaviors.

greater vicarious learning of inclusive behav- iors if the reward system encourages this type of behavior.

In contrast, reward systems that fail to reward employees for their inclusive behav- iors will unlikely encourage employee learning of inclusive conduct. To illustrate, Hegarty and Sims (1987) found an increase in unethical behavior when these behaviors were rewarded in comparison to when these behaviors were not rewarded. This study pro- vides direct evidence of the importance of the reward system in terms of eliciting specific types of behaviors. The reward system is thus critical in terms of transmitting social infor- mation into the work environment pertain- ing to the expected behaviors from employees (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). In essence, a reward system that remunerates employees for vicar- iously learning how to engage in inclusive conduct can elicit vicarious learning of inclu- sive behaviors from followers. Henceforth, the following proposition is offered.

Proposition 5: Organizational reward systems that reward inclusive behaviors are positively re- lated to vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors by followers.

Workgroup Composition

Diversity in the composition of the work- group can vary in terms of visible and nonvis- ible characteristics of group members (Milliken & Martins, 1996). Workgroup diver- sity can be surface-level, such as gender, or it can be deep-level, such as work values (Harrison, Price, & Bell, 1998). For simplicity, this section is limited to examining work- group composition from a cultural perspec- tive; however, the arguments hold for both visible and nonvisible differences among group members. Since workgroup composi- tion can have a significant influence on employee behavior (Choi, 2007), the nature of the composition of the workgroup on fol- lowers’ learning of inclusive conduct must be examined.

Culturally diverse groups are composed of group members that significantly differ in terms of national and/or ethnic background,

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Followers who are

provided more high-

quality opportunities

to vicariously learn

how to behave

in an inclusive

manner can devote

more attention

toward learning the

behavioral details

for subsequent

replication.

toward learning the behavioral details for subsequent replication (Bandura, 1986).

In contrast, small workgroups tend to reflect limited surface- and deep-level diversity because there are simply fewer members that can differ on visible and nonvisible attributes (Jackson et  al., 1991). From an integration- and-learning perspective, authentic leaders of small workgroups usually encounter fewer opportunities to demonstrate a wide range of inclusive behaviors because there are fewer individual differences among followers who can be uniquely applied to work processes. In support, Mooney, Holahan, and Amason (2007) found that group size was positively related to cognitive conflict, thereby suggest- ing that small workgroups tend to have mem- bers with limited variation in experiences and opinions. Authentic leaders thus transmit less social information through their behaviors related to the importance of inclusive behav- iors into the work environment (e.g., Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). Taken together, large work- groups present authentic leaders with more opportunities to demonstrate a wide range of inclusive conduct, thereby positively influ- encing the vicarious learning of inclusive conduct by followers.

Proposition 7: Workgroup size is positively related to vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors by fol- lowers.

Goal Interdependence

Goal interdependence theory (Deutsch, 1973) posits that the interdependence of goals among authentic leaders and followers can have important implications (Johnson & Johnson, 2005). Authentic leaders can con- vey their goals of developing an inclusive cli- mate by imbuing social cues into the work environment related to the importance of workplace inclusion (e.g., Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). Followers retrieve this goal-related information to determine whether their goals are interdependent with their leaders. This assessment can subsequently influence fol- lowers’ attitudes, behaviors, and interactions with others (e.g., Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Henceforth, the interdependent nature of the goals between authentic leaders and

Proposition 6: Heterogeneous workgroup composi- tion is positively related to vicarious learning of inclusive behaviors by followers.

Group Size

Workgroups can differ considerably in terms of the number of group members. Small workgroups tend to range from two to six members, and large workgroups usually have seven or more members (Hare, 1992). Workgroup size is an important group struc- ture, as numerous studies have shown that it can influence important individual and unit- level outcomes (e.g., Colquitt, Noe, & Jackson, 2002; Weege, Roth, Neubach, Schmidt, &

Kanfer, 2008). More specifically, Gill and Ling (1995) explain that the number of group members can influence learning effective- ness. Henceforth, the following discussion examines the role of group size on followers’ vicarious learning of inclusive conduct.

Group size can influence the extent of surface- and deep- level diversity within workgroups (Jackson et al., 1991). An increase in the number of group members is associated with an increase in the likelihood of surface- and deep-level diversity in the work- group. Large workgroups tend to have more followers with unique opinions and experiences result- ing from their differing back- grounds (Bantel & Jackson, 1989). Henceforth, these groups provide more opportunities for authentic

leaders to demonstrate a wide range of inclu- sive conduct because there are usually more high-quality opportunities to help followers apply their differences to work processes. In other words, group size can influence the capacity of authentic leaders to transmit social cues into the work environment per- taining to the importance of inclusive con- duct (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). Followers who are provided more high-quality opportuni- ties to vicariously learn how to behave in an inclusive manner can devote more attention

WORKPLACE INCLUSION AND SOCIAL INFORMATION PROCESSING 255

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Authentic leaders

and followers who

share a cooperative

goal structure

related to creating

a climate for

inclusion can foster

followers’ vicarious

learning of inclusive

conduct because

this learning can

simultaneously help

both parties reach

their goals.

cooperative goal structures have been linked to open-mindedness, whereby group mem- bers share personal viewpoints and seek to understand others’ viewpoints to ensure the most positive outcomes result for both parties (Alper, Tjosvold, & Law, 1998). As previously alluded to, authentic leaders who are driven to create a climate for inclusion tend to dem- onstrate a range of inclusive behaviors aimed at transmitting social cues into the work envi- ronment for followers (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). Followers are more likely to be attuned to these behaviors in order to learn how to properly act in an inclusive man- ner across a variety of contexts (Bandura, 1986). In doing so, fol- lowers can help authentic leaders attain their goal of creating a cli- mate for inclusion and their own goal of fostering inclusive cross- cultural learning among group members to improve workgroup performance.

In contrast, followers are unlikely to vicariously learn how to behave in an inclusive man- ner when their goals diverge from those of authentic leaders. Competitive goal structures can elicit behaviors from followers who impede authentic leaders from creating a climate for inclu- sion (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Divergent goals are likely to prompt oppositional interaction (i.e., behaviors that are intended to support personal interests and impede goal attainment by the other party) (Johnson & Johnson, 1989), but are unlikely to facilitate promotive interaction (i.e., helping behaviors that are directed toward goal attainment for the other party) (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). In sup- port, Tjosvold (1997) found that competitive goals interfered with productive networking by preventing an open dialogue among a sample of dentists that could have otherwise been used to help solve business and techni- cal issues. Moreover, although independent goal structures are unlikely to elicit follower behaviors that impede authentic leaders from

followers can influence whether followers are likely to engage in vicarious learning of inclu- sive conduct.

There are three types of goal structures: cooperative, competitive, and independent (Johnson & Johnson, 1989). First, cooperative goals occur when authentic leaders and fol- lowers have a positively correlated goal struc- ture. In other words, authentic leaders who progress toward their own goals also have fol- lowers who shift toward reaching their own goals and vice versa. This structure results in win-win situations because both leaders and followers are committed to helping each other succeed (Tjosvold, Tang, & West, 2004). Second, competitive goals occur when authen- tic leaders and followers have a negatively correlated goal structure. Stated alternatively, authentic leaders who progress toward their own goals simultaneously impede followers from attaining their goals and vice versa. This goal structure results in win-lose situations because both leaders and followers are not driven to help each other, as helping can frus- trate and/or delay personal goal attainment (Tjosvold et  al., 2004). Third, independence refers to an unrelated goal structure, such that authentic leaders who move toward reaching their own goals have no impact on follow- ers’ progress toward their own goals and vice versa. Generally speaking, research has found that cooperative goals result in positive inter- actions/outcomes and competitive goals fos- ter negative interactions/outcomes (Johnson & Johnson, 2005).

Authentic leaders and followers who share a cooperative goal structure related to creating a climate for inclusion can fos- ter followers’ vicarious learning of inclusive conduct because this learning can simulta- neously help both parties reach their goals (Deutsch, 1973; Johnson & Johnson, 1989). To illustrate, authentic leaders who have a goal of creating a climate for inclusion can have followers who share a similar goal, such as to improve inclusive cross-cultural learning among group members to increase workgroup performance. The positive inter- dependent nature of these goals tends to elicit behaviors that are beneficial to both parties (Tjosvold et  al., 2004). In support,

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Authentic leaders

with a central moral

value of inclusion

are the strongest

inclusive leader role

models because

central values are

influential in driving

behavior.

processing theory (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978) is used to explain why authentic leaders are an important source of social information per- taining to workplace inclusion for their fol- lowers. Authentic leaders are naturally driven to behave in an inclusive manner deriving from their internalized moral perspective. Henceforth, authentic leaders are particularly instrumental in transmitting social cues into the work environment through their verbal and nonverbal behaviors regarding the importance of workplace inclusion. Followers retrieve this social information to understand how they are expected to behave in the work- place, and in turn this shapes their percep- tions of an inclusive work climate. In doing so, this article deepens our understanding of the integration-and-learning paradigm by explaining how authentic leaders can foster the formation of a climate for inclusion that enables all employees to feel comfortable so they can apply their individual differences to work processes, tasks, and strategies.

Second, authentic leaders occupy a partic- ularly unique role in shaping the formation of an inclusive climate due to their empha- sis on ethics, morals, and values (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Drawing on social learning the- ory (Bandura, 1977), authentic leaders can engage in inclusive leader role modeling by demonstrating a range of inclusive conduct for their followers. In doing so, authentic leaders indicate the expected, supported, and rewarded behaviors from followers, thereby facilitating perceptions of a climate for inclusion. However, there are individual differences that can differentiate the authen- tic leaders who are the most fruitful in fos- tering a climate for inclusion. The central moral value of inclusion is posited to be a key individual difference that can have a sig- nificant influence on the inclusive behavior demonstrated by authentic leaders. In other words, authentic leaders with a central moral value of inclusion are the strongest inclusive leader role models because central values are influential in driving behavior (Verplanken & Holland, 2002). In doing so, this research partly responds to a recent call for research: “It would be enormously useful if future research investigated the organizational and

creating a climate for inclusion, this goal structure is also unlikely to trigger any help- ing behaviors (Deutsch, 1973). Henceforth, followers’ vicarious learning of inclusive con- duct can be prompted when authentic lead- ers and followers share a cooperative goal structure related to a climate for inclusion.

Proposition 8: Cooperative goals aimed at foster- ing a climate for inclusion shared by authentic leaders and followers is positively related to vicari- ous learning of inclusive behaviors by followers.

Discussion

There is an ever-increasing trend of workplace diversity (Buttner et  al., 2010; Gonzalez & DeNisi, 2009; Sanchez-Burks et  al., 2009), which is resulting in a growing number of calls

for scholarly attention to under- stand how to attend to this phe- nomenon. In response to these calls, this article presented a con- ceptual model that contributes to the growing body of literature on workplace inclusion (e.g., Bilimoria et  al., 2008; Nishii, 2013; Shore et al., 2011). This article specifically explored how a climate for inclu- sion can foster feelings of comfort, thereby encouraging all employees to directly apply their differences to work processes, tasks, and strate- gies. Drawing on the social infor- mation processing perspective (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978), an

organization-wide change effort aimed at cre- ating an inclusive work climate was examined. Authentic leaders are posited to serve as a sig- nificant source of social information in terms of conveying the importance of workplace inclusion to employees. Organizational reward systems, workgroup composition, group size, and goal interdependence are also critical orga- nizational and group structures, processes, and strategies that can have a key influence on the formation of a climate for inclusion.

Theoretical Contributions

This article offers four significant theoretical contributions. First, the social information

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of inclusive behavior by followers because this learning can help followers and authen- tic leaders reach their respective goals. Taken together, this research offers several impor- tant theoretical contributions to the litera- ture, yet future research is needed to further extend the workplace inclusion literature.

Avenues for Future Research

Broadly speaking, future research is needed to deepen our understanding of the key deter- minants and outcomes of a climate for inclu- sion. Future research should begin to examine antecedent-based questions, such as: What other forms of leadership can facilitate or impede creating a climate for inclusion? What are other important boundary condi- tions of creating an inclusive climate? The outcomes associated with a climate for inclu- sion should also be examined by addressing outcome-based questions, such as: How do inclusive climates influence conflict, group dynamics, and creativity? How might a cli- mate for inclusion influence performance at the individual, group, and organizational lev- els? In the following, specific avenues for future research are offered.

The conceptual model should be empiri- cally tested using both qualitative and quan- titative methods. In line with calls for more qualitative management research (e.g., Gephart, 2004), case-study methodologies could be used to examine how the social pro- cess of creating a climate for inclusion unfolds in a specific organization. Researchers should use techniques such as participant observa- tion, in-depth interviews with authentic lead- ers and followers, and focus groups to gain rich insights into how authentic leaders can create an inclusive climate (e.g., Marshall & Rossman, 2010). Similar to most work climate studies, researchers should also use quantita- tive methodologies. For example, a longitu- dinal research design that uses multisource questionnaires could be used to test the prop- ositions. Indeed, there are a number of previ- ously validated measures that can be used (e.g., Nishii, 2013; Walumbwa et al., 2008); however, some of these measures may require minor modifications (e.g., Tjosvold et  al., 2004).

individual-level factors that make unit lead- ers more likely to create inclusive climates” (Nishii, 2013, p. 27).

Third, the dynamic formation of a climate for inclusion is taken into account by explor- ing the role of followers, such that followers can help foster perceptions of an inclusive climate by engaging in cognitive and behav- ioral processes to vicariously learn how to behave in an inclusive manner. Followers begin the learning process by devoting sig- nificant attention to observing and retain- ing the behavioral details of the inclusive behaviors of authentic leaders (e.g., Gioia & Manz, 1985). Afterward, followers engage in a behavioral process to emulate the inclusive behaviors of authentic leaders by retrieving previously encoded symbolic representa- tions of the inclusive conduct (e.g., Bandura, 1977). Moreover, authentic leaders who moti- vate followers to behave in an inclusive man- ner through positive reinforcement can help to stimulate vicarious learning of inclusive conduct by followers. Henceforth, followers who vicariously learn inclusive conduct from authentic leaders can help to indirectly shape a climate for inclusion.

Fourth, organizational and group pro- cesses, structures, and strategies can indi- rectly influence the formation of a climate for inclusion by impacting followers’ learn- ing of inclusive behaviors. Organizational reward systems that remunerate inclusive conduct signals to employees that inclusive behaviors are encouraged, supported, and rewarded. This reward system can moti- vate followers to learn how to behave inclu- sively by observing leaders who reinforce the importance of inclusive behaviors through their actions. Workgroups that are large and highly diverse present authentic leaders with more high-quality opportunities to demon- strate inclusive conduct because there tends to be more surface- and deep-level diver- sity in these groups. Followers thus tend to engage in greater vicarious learning of inclu- sive behaviors because followers often look toward their leader for behavioral guidelines. Authentic leaders and followers who share cooperative goals related to creating a climate for inclusion can stimulate vicarious learning

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Researchers can

draw on the social

capital perspective

to examine how

star employees

can use their social

ties to disseminate

knowledge about

the importance of

workplace inclusion.

to create a climate for inclusion. These ques- tions provide evidence of the importance and wealth of research needed to begin fur- ther developing the climate for inclusion literature.

Practical Implications

There are also several important insights for managers and human resource (HR) profes- sionals. The recruitment and selection pro- cess should be aimed at identifying authentic leaders based on the key characteristics of self-awareness, relational transparency, bal- anced processing, and an internalized moral perspective (Walumbwa et  al., 2008). Cooper, Scandura, and Schriesheim (2005) posit that authentic leadership can be iden- tified using survey-based methods, experi- ential exercises, and scenario-based exercises (e.g., presenting an ethical dilemma to potential job candidates in order to assess their ethical decision-making abilities). Although some leaders may not require any support to draw out their authentic leader- ship style, many leaders currently employed in organizations need guidance (Avolio & Luthans, 2006). Henceforth, genuine authentic leadership interventions should be offered in order to produce trigger events that stimulate a significant behavioral change in leadership style (Cooper et  al., 2005). These interventions should also include an explicit focus on ethical decision- making processes (Cooper et  al., 2005). Indeed, leaders need to employ their authen- tic selves in order to foster an inclusive cli- mate by role modeling inclusive behaviors for their followers.

Socialization initiatives (e.g., orienta- tion sessions, on-boarding programs) for new hires should communicate the behav- ioral expectations from employees (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012). HR professionals lead- ing these programs should clearly indicate the importance of inclusion by providing examples of inclusive behaviors specific to the organization. Moreover, authentic lead- ers should continue to convey the impor- tance of inclusive behaviors on a daily basis by leading others according to their morals

Although some studies have developed a measure of inclusive behavior for a specific context (e.g., Munir et al., 2012), research is sorely needed to develop a more comprehen- sive measure of inclusive behavior.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) can be used to assess for the mediating (e.g., Proposition 1), moderating (e.g., Proposition 2), and direct main effects (e.g., Proposition 5) in the conceptual model (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). SEM is a power- ful multivariate technique that primarily uses confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and path analysis (PA) to test rather complex structures of interdependent relationships (Hair et  al., 2010). SEM is often deemed superior to many

other statistical techniques for a number of reasons, including its flexibility with estimation options and model specification (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). This recommen- dation is in line with many other studies that examine how leader- ship can influence work climate (e.g., Ehrhart, 2004; Shih, Chiang, & Chen, 2012). Researchers who seek to test the model could also further extend this model by examining how other disposi- tional characteristics of authen- tic leaders influence inclusive leader role modeling. For exam- ple, researchers could explore the influence of leader self-efficacy (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, &

Harms, 2008) because self-efficacy has been linked to performance outcomes (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998).

Future research is also needed to explore the role of “star employees,” who are defined as exceptional performers arising from their extraordinary productivity (Groysberg, Lee, & Nanda, 2008). Researchers can draw on the social capital perspective to examine how star employees can use their social ties to dis- seminate knowledge about the importance of workplace inclusion. Future research is also needed to explore the role of specific char- acteristics of star employees (e.g., benevo- lence) in order to identify which type of star employee is most fruitful in terms of helping

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Leaders should

seek to engage in

visible and simple

behaviors to

facilitate a strong

understanding by

followers of how

to replicate their

behaviors.

change effort comprising several reinforcing processes and practices is needed to institu- tionalize inclusion by fostering a climate for inclusion.

Conclusion

Workplaces are becoming increasingly diverse, thereby underscoring the need for research to investigate how organizations can attend to this trend by fostering workplace inclusion. This article presents an organization-wide change effort whereby authentic leaders, organizational reward sys- tems, workgroup composition, group size, and cooperative goal structures serve as mutually rein- forcing mechanisms that can con- vey the importance of workplace inclusion. These processes interact to create a work climate whereby employees can feel comfortable to apply their individual differences to work processes, tasks, and strat- egies. In doing so, this article offers many important directions for future research aimed at under standing the institutionaliza- tion of workplace inclusion.

Acknowledgment

This research was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

and values to allow followers to emulate their inclusive behaviors. More specifically, leaders should seek to engage in visible and simple behaviors to facilitate a strong understanding by followers of how to replicate their behav- iors. Workgroups should also be designed to facilitate cross-cultural learning by ensuring significant surface- and deep-level diversity among group members. Training programs should also be offered to teach employees how to interact in a respectful and inclusive manner (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004).

HR professionals should ensure the organizational reward system reinforces the importance of inclusion by rewarding employees for engaging in sincere inclu- sive behaviors to further elicit these types of behaviors (e.g., Colville & Millner, 2011). HR professionals should also seek to provide employees numerous voice opportunities to foster a sense of uniqueness and belong- ingness through various initiatives, such as diversity-enhancing work councils, equality- promoting initiatives, and anonymous feed- back systems (e.g., Bell et al., 2011). Finally, HR professionals should review HR practices, policies, and procedures to ensure there is an inclusive HR system. For example, Boehm, Kunze, and Bruch (2013) explain that age- inclusive HR practices comprise age-neutral recruiting practices, equal access to train- ing irrespective of age, and age-neutral career development and promotion prac- tices. Taken together, an organization-wide

JANET A. BOEKHORST is a PhD candidate in human resource management at York

University in Toronto, Canada. Her primary research interests include diversity and inclu-

sion, human resource management, interpersonal mistreatment, and employee well-be-

ing. Her research has been published in journals such as the Journal of Occupational and

Organizational Psychology, Human Resource Management Review, and the International

Journal of Human Resource Management.

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