reflection 2

September/October 2009 19

Social Studies and the Young Learner 22 (1), pp. 19–22

©2009 National Council for the Social Studies

Ways to Teach About Informational Text Barbara A. Marinak and Linda B. Gambrell

The basic skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are necessary, but not sufficient for participation in a world that demands independent and cooperative problem

solving of its citizens.1 Young children come to school with an interest in the community and the world outside their own. Social studies curricula can affirm the child’s immedi- ate exper ience of self, home, and family—and then expand beyond it.2 To provide such instruction, teachers need to locate, evaluate, and use appropriate resources to supplement textbooks. The ever-growing collection of infor mational trade books is an impor tant source of supplemental resources for elementary teachers.

Using informational text across the content areas is well supported by research in reading and social studies. Practice in reading informational text can help prepare students for the rigorous reading demands of secondary school.3 Many recent studies suggest that both the amount of informational text avail able to elementary readers and the number of minutes spent reading infor- mational material is far less than needed in a balanced, comprehensive primary program.4

Reader’s Choice In a recent study, first graders over- whelmingly chose nonfiction books over fiction.5 Students from ten different schools were invited to visit a book display range of genres featuring protagonists of differ- ent ethnicities and gender. Students were invited to browse and select a book that would be theirs to keep. Approximately 85 percent of the children chose non-fiction over fiction. Another study revealed that kin dergarteners preferred informa tional text over fiction.6 Children in this study were just as successful in reenacting mate- rial from the infor mational books as they were from the fictional stories. This result challenged the “narrative as elementary” notion that young children relate best to narrative fiction. Rather, exclusive empha sis on reading “story” in the early grades limits children’s exper iences with other text forms and may create a barrier to full to literacy.

Evidence that reading infor mational text bolsters read- ing achieve ment can be found in data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).7 Trends in results from NAEP from 1990 to the present indicate that reading achieve ment in fifth graders increases as the diversity of their reading experiences increases. In other words, fourth graders who reported reading a wide variety of texts (narrative, infor mation, magazines, etc.) had higher reading achievement than did students who reported reading only one type of text. Exposing young children to informational text pre pares them to handle the literacy demands of their later schooling.8

Elements of Informational Text Children can learn about the five elements of a narrative story: charac ters, setting, problem, events, and solution at an early age. Similarly, there are five elements that occur in most non- fiction texts: the author’s purpose, major ideas, supporting aids,

and vocabulary. TABLE 1 provides an instructional framework to help students recognize these five elements.9

It also provides definitions and guiding questions that teach- ers can use when modeling how to identify the five infor- mational text elements. A version of TABLE 1 could also be posted in the classroom.

Table 1. Elements of Informational Text Element Definition Guiding Questions

Author’s Purpose The intent of the author

Did the author write the text to entertain, inform and/or persuade the audience regarding the selected topic?

Why did the author write this book?

What information did the author want to convey?

Major Ideas Key points the author wants readers to under­ stand

What are the major ideas of the book/selection?

How are the major ideas presented?

Supporting Details

Information support­ ing and clarifiying the major ideas

What are the supporting details for each major idea?

How are the supporting details presented?

Aids Pictures, photographs, graphs, tables, charts, time lines

What aids does the author use to convey meaning?

What information is included in the aids (major ideas, sup- porting detail, vocabulary)?

Vocabulary Technical words needed for full understanding of the text

What key vocabulary words are used to convey major ideas?

What vocabulary words are used in the supporting details?

What words should you understand to discuss or write about this book/selection?

20 Social Studies and the Young Learner

Structures of Informational Text A passage of elementary informational text often follows one of five structures: enumeration (list), time order, compare and contrast, cause and effect, and question and answer. A struc- ture reflects the manner in which major ideas and supporting details are organized, displayed, or argued by the writer. The organization can often be identified by signal words that are specific to each structure. TABLE 2 contains a definition and examples of signal words for each of the five text structures. This infor mation can be posted for reference during classroom

discussion and copied and placed in students’ folders for them to use dur ing independent practice or research.

Enumeration, the least complex text structure, is a listing of major ideas, events, or details. There is no specified order to this listing. An instructional analogy to use when teach ing enumeration is that of a shopping list: the order that you put things into the cart does not matter as long as you collect them all before checkout. In other words, in an enumerative text structure, the major ideas and corresponding supporting details do not have to be read or retold in a prescribed order.

More complex relationships exist within the major ideas and supporting details in the three remaining text structures. A time order structure sequences the major ideas and sup- port ing details according to the pas sage of time.

The compare and contrast structure describes how concepts are similar or different.

Cause and effect is a structure in which the supporting details give the possible causes of an event or the results produced by an event.

And in a question and answer struc ture, major ideas are

posed as ques tions with supporting details embedd ed in the answers.

Sentence Strips Theories of child development suggest that the social environ- ment can provide learners with the opportunity to observe higher levels of cognitive processing.10 Modeling by the teacher provides opportunities for students to observe how meaning is derived from informational text. It is especially important in the elementary grades that teachers model how to identify

the five elements of infor mational text. In particular, modeling engages students in learning the language of informational text.

In one classroom that we observ ed, the teacher used an interactive read- aloud activity to model the elements of informational text. The book If You Traveled West in a Covered Wagon invites young child ren to study how peo- ple view themselves over time. During the student-teacher exchange, the teacher used a chart that contained a series of sentence strips matched with the five elements of infor mational text.

Informational Element Sort Another activity that can be used to model the five elements is the Infor- mational Element Sort.11 This activity is designed to help children become familiar with the elements of informa-

tional text and learn some vocabulary from a specific book. Word sort activities enhance vocabu lary development and comprehension by actively involving students in the catego- rization process.12

During an Informa tional Element Sort, the teacher guides students in group ing or sorting words into the five categories: author’s purpose, major ideas, supporting details, aids and vocabulary. Before reading, the teacher shares selected words from the text, emphasizing that each word will be sorted into one of the five informational element categories.

Fighting Fires describes the tools of an important com- munity institution: the fire company. We observed a teacher who had selected twelve words from this photo-docu men tary (such as “bucket,” “rescue,” “collaps ed,” “off-road,” etc.) for an Infor ma tion al Element Sort activity. After the teacher read the story aloud, students sorted the words into each of the element categories.

Depending on the words selected, interesting discussions might take place as children talk about the best category for each word. In this book, “bucket” is a supporting detail that describes a piece of equipment on a pumper truck, but

Table 2. Structures of Informational Text Structure Definition Signal Words

Enumeration A major idea is supported by a list of details and examples.

for instance, for example, such as, to illustrate, another,

Time Order

A major idea is supported by details. Both major ideas and supporting details must be in a particular sequence.

at, first, next, last, before, after, finally, following

Compare and Contrast

The supporting details of two or more major ideas indicate how those concepts are similar or different.

but, different from, same as, similar to, as opposed to, instead of, however, compared with, as well as, both, while,

Cause and Effect

The supporting details give the causes of a major idea or the supporting details are the results produced by the major idea.

because of, as a result of, in order to, may be due to, effects of, therefore, consequently, for this rea­ son, if…then, causing, allow

Question and Answer

The major idea is posed as a question. Supporting details answer the question.

who? what? when? where? why? how?

September/October 2009 21

“buckets” is an important vocabulary word explaining how fires were fought before fire trucks were invented. Words with multiple meanings can prompt lively discus sions. Using carefully selected words from the text, teachers can engage students in a word sort that helps them internalize the five elem ents informational text.

Mapping Structure Modeling the five text structures can be facilitated with the use of infor mational text maps. The teacher, work ing with the students, can illustrate text structure by carefully arranging the major ideas and support ing details in a text map. Creat ing such a map can be easily modeled using an exemplar: a book or portions of a book that is an unambiguous example of one of the five structures.

Rosie, A Visiting Dog’s Story, a photo-documentary about the civic ideal of volunteerism, can be used as an exemplar of time order. It contains a readily identifiable text structure in which the appropriate words are used to “signal” the passage of time. The book describes the early life of Rosie, a Tibetan terrier being trained as a therapy dog.

We observed elementary students creating a time-order text

map during a discussion of Rosie. In this activity, the teacher provided the three sequen tial major ideas on the text map: puppyhood, training, and visiting clients. After discussing the major ideas, students went back into the text to find and record several related supporting details. For example, as part of her training, Rosie joined a visiting dog program at the ASPCA.

Compare and Contrast Bridges Are to Cross can be used to discuss the similarities and differences between bridges from different locations and his- torical periods. Even though the book does not directly com- pare and contrast bridges (it simply enumerates and describes several of them), the author looks at the same attributes in each case (shape, construction materials, coun try, century when built, and purpose).

For example, the author describes similar attributes for the Ponte Sant’Angelo in Rome and the Ponte Di Rialto in Venice. Students can use this information to compare and contrast these two bridges. We observed elem entary students completing a text map during a discussion of this interesting book.

C re

di t:

Ly ne

tt e

M cC

le nd

on , P

en n

St at

e H

ar ris

b ur

g.

22 Social Studies and the Young Learner

Concluding Thoughts Many teachers would agree that young students are far more familiar and comfortable with narrative text than they are with informational text. Research indicates that many students have difficulty comprehending infor mational text,13 although they crave fascinating facts. While there may be many reasons for this difficulty, one explanation is that students often do not recognize the basic underlying structure of informa tional text.14

Research indicates that a student’s com pre hension improves with explicit instruction about informational text struc ture.15 Consequently, it is important that students receive explicit instruc tion in both the elements and structures of informational text. Such instruction can help students become comfortable and familiar with the “academic language” needed for under- standing informational text and talking about it with others.

Supporting students in developing the language, strategies, and skills needed to read informational materials is a critical step in preparing them to comprehend within and across all types of text. Proficiency in compre hending informational text will help our students build the enduring skills they need to “read the world” and be successful in school, work, commu- nity, and everyday life.16

Notes 1. National Council for the Social Studies, Position Statement: “Social Studies for

Early Childhood and Elementary School Child ren Preparing for the 21st Cen tury” (June 1998), www.social studies.org/positions/elementary.

2. National Association for the Education of Young Children, “Position Statement on Developmentally Appro priate Prac tice in Early Childhood Programs” (2009), naeyc.org/about/positions/pdf/PSDAP.pdf; NCSS, 1998.

3. N. Duke and V. S. Bennett-Armistead, Reading and Writing Infor mational Text in the Elementary Grades (New York: Scholastic, 2003).

4. N. Duke, “3.6 Minutes per Day: The Scarcity of Informational Text in First Grade,” Reading Research Quarterly 35 (2000): 202-224; R. Yopp and H. Yopp, “Sharing Informational Text with Young Children,” The Reading Teacher 53, no. 5 (2000): 410-423; C. Snow, S. Burns, and P. Griffin, Preventing Reading Difficulty in Young Children (Washington, D.C: National Research Council, 1998); International Reading Association, Position Statement: “Providing Books and Other Print Materials for Classroom and School Libraries” (1998), www.reading.org/General/ AboutIRA/PositionStatements LibrariesPosition.aspx.

5. K. Mohr, “Children’s Choices for Recreational Reading: A Three-Part Investigation of Selection Preferences, Rationales, and Processes,” Journal of Literacy Research 38, no. 1 (2006): 81-104.

6. C. Pappas, “Is Narrative ‘Elementary’?: Some Insights from Kindergartners’ Pretend Readings of Stories and Inform Books,” Journal of Reading Behavior 25, (1993): 97-129.

7. National Assessment of Education Progress, The Nation’s Report Card (July 2009), nces.ed.gov/naep3.

8. Duke and Bennett-Armistead. 9. B. Marinak and L. Gambrell, “Choosing and Using Informational Text for In str-

uc tion in the Primary Grades,” in B. Guzzetti, ed., Literacy for the New Mil len nium (New York: Praeger Books, 2007).

10. L. Vygotsky, Mind in Society (Cam bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978): 10.

11. Marinak and Gambrell. 12. J. Gillett, and M. Kita, “Words, Kids, and Categories,” The Reading Teacher 32,

no. 5 (1979): 538-546; J. Zutell, “Word Study and Spelling Instruction for Elementary Grade Students,” Paper delivered at the Central Dauphin School District, Harrisburg, PA, (July 16, 1999).

13. S. Dymock, “A Comparison Study of the Effects of Text Structure Training, Reading Practice, and Guided Reading on Reading Comprehension,” In T. Shanahan and F.V. Rodriguez-Brown eds., 47th Yearbook of the National Reading Conference (Chicago: NRC, 1998): 90-102; J. Williams et al., (2005). Expository Text Comprehension in the Primary Grade Classroom,” Jour nal of Educational Psychology 97, no. 4 (2005): 538-550.

14. S. Dymock and T. Nicholson, Reading Comprehension: What Is It? How Do You Teach It? (Wellington,: New Zea land Council for Educational Research, 1999); K. Hall et al., “Expository Text Comprehension,” Reading Psychology 26, (2005): 211-234.

15. J. Williams, “Instruction in Reading Comprehension for Elementary-grade Students: A Focus on Text Structure. Journal of Special Education 39, no. 1 (2005): 6-18; J. Williams, K. Hall, and K. Lauer, “Teaching Expository Text Structure to Young At-risk Learners,” Exceptionality 12, no. 3 (2004): 129-144.

16. We would like to thank the teachers and principals in the Mechanicsburg Area School District in Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania, and the Bensalem Township School District in Bensalem, Pennsylvania, for opening their classrooms to our coach ing, research, and observations.

Children’s Books Calmenson, Stephanie. Rosie: a Visiting Dog’s Story. New York: Houghton Mifflin,

2001. Levine, Ellen. If You Traveled West in a Covered Wagon. New York: Scholastic,

2006. Simon, Seymour. Fighting Fires. New York: Seastar Books, 2002. Sturges, Philemon. Bridges Are to Cross. New York: Scholastic, 1999.

Barbara A. Marinak is an assistant professor of reading in the School of Behavioral Sciences and Education at Penn State Harrisburg in Har- risburg, Pennsylvania. Linda B. Gambrell is distinguished professor of education in the Eugene T. Moore School of Education at Clemson University in Clemson, South Carolina.

An Award for Social Studies and the Young Learner

In July, the Association of Educational Publishers (AEP) announced that the special 20th anniversary issue (September/October 2008) of Social Studies and the Young Learner was judged the best anniversary or commemorative issue of any educa­ tional journal for adults (i.e., teachers rather than students) to have been published in 2008.

This is a very distinguished award to receive, and all authors should be congratu­ lated, including all three former editors of SSYL who contributed short essays for the anniversary issue: Huber M. Walsh, Gloria T. Alter, and Sherry L. Field.

Turning to the NCSS flagship journal Social Education, Walter Parker’s Research and Practice column was judged the best column or department in an educational periodical for adults in 2008. This marks the first time that NCSS publications have received two number 1 awards from AEP in the same year.

Social Studies and the Young Learner 17(3), pp. 4-7 ©2005 National Council for the Social Studies

Adapting a Social Studies Lesson to Include English Language Learners N. Eleni Pappamihiel, Vickie E. Lake, and Diana C. Rice

If you were to search for classroom strategies for English Language Learners (ELLs), it would not take much time to find many different types of activities that are all useful with ELLs. Additionally, if you were to search for social studies strategies to use with native English speakers, you would have little difficulty in finding a variety of innovative and clever approaches. However, if you were to search for strategies that would be effective for both ELLs and native English speakers in the same classroom, you would be hard pressed to find a good integration of theory and classroom strategy that would result in quality learning for both groups. Yet this challenge is exactly the dilemma faced by thousands of primary education teachers as they implement the typical social studies curriculum.

We believe that ELLs bring an invaluable diversity to our class- rooms, yet it is difficult and often frustrating to adapt lessons that meet their needs and are appropriate for native English speaking students, too. Furthermore, the concept that “good teaching” will do the trick is not only outdated but also ineffective. Many good teachers are baffled when faced with a child who obviously brings skills to the classroom but has difficulty demonstrating them due to language differences.

This article brings theory into practice and demonstrates how to apply commonly accepted language acquisition theories to les- son plans designed for native speakers of English. In this process,

readers will learn not only how to apply theory to lessons, but more importantly, why to apply certain theories to certain types of les- sons, moving beyond the limitations of just plain “good teaching.” Using an everyday social studies lesson designed for primary grade classrooms, we will reveal how to adapt objectives for ELLs and how to analyze lessons in order to modify the language demands of each lesson. Key points in this process involve adapting objectives to fit the English level and skills of ELLs, analyzing the linguistic/cultural demands of the lesson and adapting classroom activities to increase interaction between native English speakers and ELLs.

Basic Concepts in Second Language Acquisition As a point of departure, all general education teachers must realize that language learning (both first and second) is a process that is sequential, systematic, and cognitive. Children do not learn language through imitation but rather through authentic interaction and scaf- folded learning opportunities. As children move through the various stages of language acquisition, they experiment with language and develop cognitive skills as they use English. Interaction tends to help this process along; hence, the more meaningful interaction a teacher can provide, the more opportunities the ELL has to progress, both cognitively and linguistically.

Additionally, children from diverse language backgrounds

4 social studies and the young learner

will bring different skills into the classroom. Chil- dren are expected to learn certain language skills at home and bring them into the classroom.1 These skills include using language to describe and label, recount and retell, follow directions from a variety of sources, sustain and maintain appropriate social interactions, obtain information from non-intimates, and account for one’s own unique experiences. Yet, from an American perspective, ELLs coming into our schools are not often linguistically or culturally fluent in these different types of tasks. Hence, teach- ers must be aware that their responsibilities to make language adaptations go beyond simple translations of concepts. Especially with younger learners, adults often assume that they will acquire English quickly and without difficulty. How- ever, adults in the educational setting must always be cognizant that English acquisition is not merely the grammar of the language, but also the sociocultural aspects that native English speaking children have been learning since birth.

Finally, ELLs must be held to the same high standard as all stu- dents in the classroom. Research has shown that students who are asked higher-level questions perform well,2 but that teachers do not often pose higher-level questions to ELLs. Thus, some observers of the classroom have posited a “benevolent conspiracy” in which teachers intend to save ELLs from embarrassment, but this avoid- ance deprives ELLs of learning opportunities.3 In general education classrooms, concepts must be simplified by the teacher, but not made simplistic.

Steps in Adapting Lessons: Working with Objectives As with any lesson plan, the teacher must begin with objectives. Objectives are exactly what it is that students will take away from this lesson. General social studies objectives must almost always be rewritten taking each ELL’s level of English acquisition into account.

ELLs with different levels of English proficiency will demand different types of objectives. Students who are at a beginning level will need objectives that are more concrete and allow for non-verbal demonstrations, role-plays, and sentence completion. While inter- action is a key element for any ELL, those at the beginning levels should be given the opportunity to participate in very small groups and pairs so that they do not feel overwhelmed with input.

ELLs at intermediate levels who have developed social English can make good use of cooperative learning activities and small group discussions. Finally, students at the high intermediate levels who are beginning to work well with academic English can work with objec- tives that still include detailed scaffolding and contextual support. At this level, when students are already socially proficient, teachers need to focus on developing academic language.4

Analyzing Language Demands and Creating Language Objectives A common step in lesson plan adaptation that many teachers tend to rush through is analyzing the language demands of their lessons. In other words, given the accommodated objectives, what does my

ELL student need to be able to do with language in order to accom- plish the objective? Is there essential vocabulary that needs explana- tion? Teachers need to analyze the level of vocabulary needed and language functions required (i.e. compare and contrast, retelling, describing). Some vocabulary adds to the lesson but is not necessarily essential. On the other hand, other vocabulary must be understood in order for a student to understand the content. For example, a primary teacher teaching social studies can teach the concept of evaluating a trade economy without really having students learn the term “evaluate.” This vocabulary is nice to know, but not absolutely necessary for demonstration of understanding the concept. How- ever, it is difficult to teach about the U.S. system of government if students do not understand terminology such as “democracy” and “constitution.” Teachers must decide what concepts are essential and which are optional.

Once decisions about language complexity have been made, teachers can decide how to support concepts. Concepts that are context-embedded are scaffolded and well supported with other non-linguistic methods such as pictures, demonstrations, visuals, graphs, and advanced organizers. Concepts that are context-reduced are not as well supported by such conventions.5

Teachers must also decide if the objectives are academically demanding or academically undemanding. Objectives that are aca- demically or cognitively demanding should definitely be context- embedded. However, objectives that are cognitively undemanding, perhaps related to material that the student is already familiar with, can be opportunities to use language that is context reduced. How- ever, ELLs should never be faced with material or objectives that are cognitively demanding and context-reduced. Figure 1 describes the relationship between context embedding and difficulty of material.6 Ideally, students would be working primarily in quadrant B.

If students are working with concepts that are cognitively demand- ing, there should be many instances of context embedding (such as Venn diagrams, T graphs, labeling pictures, word wall, hands-on activities, or further explanations found in the text) so that ELLs receive the same message in a variety of ways and are better able to understand the concepts presented. On the other hand, if the class lesson is a review that is not cognitively demanding, teachers can use this as an opportunity for ELLs to flex their English language “muscles” and experiment with English structures that they are not so comfortable with.

Figure 1

Cognitively Understanding

Cognitively Demanding

Context ReducedContext Embedded A B

C D

January/February 2005 5

Ideally, ELLs should have both social studies objectives and language objectives. The social studies objectives help teachers to prioritize content learning for their ELLs. The language objectives not only help teachers decide the English demands of the lesson, but they also help the ELLs continue to develop their English skills in the content classroom.

Adapting Texts and Other Input Materials For many ELLs, the most difficult part of a lesson is reading. Even for those ELLs who bring literacy skills to transfer from one language to the other, reading is often difficult and time-consuming, especially if the concepts contained in the text are abstract. In these cases, teach- ers can adapt texts and other materials to fit the needs of the ELLs. For some students, this adaptation will take the form of highlighting concrete concepts that include the main ideas behind the objectives. For other, less proficient ELLs, this adaptation will involve highlight- ing key words and rewriting sentences that encapsulate the lesson. In these cases, native English speakers can generate shorter, simpler sentences as they summarize the lesson, These adapted sentences can, in turn, be used by ELLs in the classroom.

Markets and Exchanges: An Adapted Lesson for the Primary Social Studies Curriculum Standards • Florida Sunshine State Standard—Social Studies Standard 2: The

student understands the characteristics of different economic systems and institutions.

• SS.D.2.1.2: understands the basic concepts of markets and exchanges.

Objectives for Native English Speakers The following objectives are intended for Native English Speakers, but would need to be adapted for any ELLs in the class according to their level of English proficiency. 1. The student will be able to evaluate the need for an item (to state

whether it is necessary, merely desirable, or not needed at all by the group).

2. The student will be able to participate in a trade economy with the use of verbal communication.

3. The student will be able to describe a trade economy.

Trade Economy Activity The teacher divides the students into trade groups. Group 1: farmers, Group 2: candy makers, Group 3: toy makers, Group 4: clothing makers. The farmers will be trading carrots, potatoes, cow feed, and steaks; the candy makers will be trading lollipops, licorice, and chewing gum; the toy makers, dolls, spin tops, yo-yos, and sling shots; and the clothing makers, t-shirts, socks, ties, and pants.

The teacher introduces the activity by describing a possible trade. The students will be told that they need to trade enough items to live comfortably for two days. In the groups, the students will take inventory of current possessions and decide what they need to keep and what they want at acquire from the other groups.

Maria’s group will begin to work with her on her graphic organizer. The teacher continues by modeling the trade process, pretending she is in one group and taking an item to another group to trade. While modeling the trade, the teacher is very specific through her actions and language. Each group then sends two children to another group with tradable items. They report back to their group with the results of their exchange. This process continues for several trades.

As the teacher monitors the class activity, she will ask the fol- lowing questions. ▶ What are some things that your group traded for? ▶ Why did your group choose this item? ▶ Did your group trade for an item because it was necessary to

your group or because your group just wanted it? Why?

Adapting Objectives for ELLs Teachers should analyze the language demands for this lesson, then list, in the lesson plan, examples of what student competence would look like for students at various levels of English proficiency. Below are several questions specific to the objectives of this lesson about trade, followed by examples of competent behavior for students of different language abilities. Evaluate: What characteristics should children use for their evalua-

tion? What sets of criteria have been provided to the children—is there a rubric or a model?

Verbal communication: Is the point to have one child express- ing an opinion, or to have one child negotiating meaning with another?

Necessity: This is a culturally mediated term. The value of an item depends on a person’s prior experience and needs. Students who come from different cultures may see some items as more neces- sary than others. Will students have a chance to explain why they categorize a specific item as a necessity?

Describe: How will a students display competence? Are the children drawing a diagram of a trade economy, telling the teacher what the term means to them, or repeating a definition provided by the teacher? Will this be done in a small group or the entire class?

The following objectives have been adapted for ELLs at differ- ent levels of English proficiency. “Maria” is a fictional ELL at the novice level. She speaks some social English, but has not developed academic English yet. Her literacy skills are very limited. “Carlos” is another fictional ELL at the intermediate level. He has acquired social English skills, but still struggles with academic English. His literacy skills are progressing, but still well behind his native English speaking peers.

Content Objective 1 • Maria will be able to evaluate the necessity of obtaining certain

objects and goods by correctly placing words or pictures on her graphic organizer.

• Carlos will participate in the trade activity with the help of his partner, evaluating the value or necessity of objects and goods.

6 social studies and the young learner

Content Objective 2 • Maria will use role-play with the teacher or a partner to dem-

onstrate her understanding of trading. • Carlos will be able to verbally describe trading while using

manipulatives as prompts.

Language and Social Objectives • Maria will be able to demonstrate knowledge of essential vocabu-

lary through the use of graphic organizers and role-play. • Maria will be able to verbally express her preferences and take

turns in a manner considered appropriate by her teacher and peers.

• Carlos will be able to incorporate academic English in his description of trading.

• Carlos will practice his use of past tense in describing trading.

Preparation The teacher should pull relevant vocabulary from Maria’s Picture Dictionary (Oxford) and prepare a picture/word vocabulary list and have Maria go over the words with a helpful student. Maria’s group needs to be carefully orchestrated to include students who will/can work with her using her graphic organizer. This vocabulary will also be placed on the class Word Wall.

Evaluation The teacher will informally assess all students during the group activity with special attention paid to Maria and Carlos to ensure that they are on track in achieving their objectives. In the case that Maria or Carlos is not making adequate progress, the teacher would reinforce the concepts through the use of a bilingual dictionary, picture dictionary, or other graphic representation. Carlos’ group should be using academic language so the teacher will monitor this progress as she is interacting with his group.

After the teacher stops the group activity, the students will evaluate their items, answering the following questions in their group. ▶ Have we met our needs? ▶ Do we have the items we said we wanted? ▶ Did we make good trades or bad trades? Why or why not? ▶ What items do we still need? ▶ What items do we still want?

Following this small group discussion, the teacher brings the class back together and asks several evaluative and extension questions about a trade economy. During this time, the teacher is careful to emphasize key words that have been introduced to both Maria and Carlos, reinforcing important aspects of the discussion. This portion

of the lesson is recorded so that Maria and Carlos can review it later if necessary. Additionally, different cultures can be included in the extension. The teacher may be able to do some research and find out what farmers, toy makers, candy makers and tailors typically produce in other countries, such as the native countries of Maria and Carlos. Students could then make predictions about the necessity of some of those items in an American context. ▶ What do you think trade is? ▶ Are there things you trade for in your everyday life? ▶ What other kinds of things do people trade for?

Conclusion As can be seen from this lesson, adapting objectives and activities for ELLs in mainstream classrooms is not easy. In fact, it demands that teachers not only be skilled within their specialty but also be cognizant of language acquisition concepts and levels that are often not taught within teacher preparation programs. However, we believe that when the needs of ELLs are taken into consideration, learning for all students increases. Native English speaking students who may slip through the cracks in a general education classroom have more opportunity to learn through the context-embedded and altered objectives that are developed for ELLs. Additionally, the interac- tion that takes place in order to help ELLs increase their English skills can aid all students in the classroom through peer tutoring and opportunities for self-assessment. Furthermore, by developing lessons that integrate native English speakers and ELLs, teachers are able to maximize their instructional time, thus dispelling the myth that teachers must create separate lessons for ELLs.

Notes 1. Shirley B. Heath, Ways with Words: Language, Life, and Work in Communities and

Classrooms (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 2. Rosemary C. Henze, and T. Lucas, “Shaping Instruction to Promote the Success of Language-

minority Students: An Analysis of Four High School Classes,” Peabody Journal of Education: Trends in Bilingual Education at the Secondary Level 69, no. 1 (1993): 54-81.

3. Lorrie S. Verplaetse, “How Content Teachers Interact with English Language Learners,” TESOL Journal 7 no. 5 (1998): 24-28.

4. James Cummins, Language, Power, and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 2000).

5. Cummins. 6. Figure 1 is based on an image in Cummins, p. 68.

The authors are all in the College of Education at Florida State University in

Tallahassee. N. Eleni Pappamihiel is an assistant professor of Multicultural-

Multilingual Education, Vickie E. Lake is an assistant professor of Early Childhood

Education, and Diana C. Rice is an assistant professor of Elementary Education.

Student art on page 4 by Sharye D.

January/February 2005 7